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c19early.org COVID-19 treatment researchSelect treatment..Select..
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COVID-19 early treatment: real-time analysis of 5,701 studies

 
COVID-19 involves the interplay of over 100 viral and host proteins and factors, providing many therapeutic targets. c19early analyzes over 5,700 studies for 135 treatments—over 17 million hours of research. US authorities believe only three high-profit early treatments reduce risk (remdesivir, paxlovid, molnupiravir). In reality, many treatments reduce risk, and 25 low-cost treatments have been approved across 163 countries. 0.6% of 9,000+ proposed treatments show reduced risk.
Direct treatment to the primary source of initial infection reduces progression and transmission. Many low-cost agents are widely available.
Exercise, sunlight, a healthy diet, and good sleep all reduce risk.
Vitamins A, C, D, and zinc show reduced risk, as with other viruses.
Methods for increasing internal body temperature reduce risk, comparable to natural fever, enhancing immune system function.
Many systemic agents reduce risk, and may be required when infection progresses beyond the upper respiratory tract.
High-profit systemic agents are also effective, but have greater access and cost barriers.
Highly effective for matching variants but rarely used, with high cost, variant dependence, and IV/subcutaneous administration.
Acetaminophen increases the risk of severe outcomes and mortality.
Antiviral efficacy is offset by serious side effects, resulting in increased mortality with longer followup.
c19early.org
We do not provide medical advice. No treatment is 100% effective, and all may have side effects. Protocols combine multiple treatments. Consult a qualified physician for personalized risk/benefit analysis.
$0 $1,000 $2,000+ -25+% 0% 25% 50% Treatment cost (US$) Efficacy vs. cost for COVID-19 treatments +24 more high-profit -ve drugs Glenzocimab -60% >$2,000 Olokizumab -50% >$2,000 PPIs -46% BMS mAbs -36% >$2,000 Acetaminophen -28% Cenicriviroc -28% >$2,000 Lufotrelvir >$2,000 Cannabidiol Plitidepsin >$2,000 Losartan Sargramostim >$2,000 Vitamin B9 Ravulizumab >$2,000 Remdesivir $3,120 Conv. Plasma $5,000 Sarilumab >$2,000 Ibuprofen PPE Aspirin Molnupiravir mutagenic/teratogenic Paxlovid Favipiravir Famotidine Vitamin C Sotrovimab $2,100 TMPRSS2 i.. Amubarvimab/r.. Azvudine NAC Vilobelimab $6,350 Colchicine Budesonide Probiotics Zinc HCQ Nitric Oxide Antiandro.. Metformin Sleep Vitamin A Bebtelovimab H1RAs Sunlight H. Peroxide Vitamin D Exercise Fluvox. Tixagevimab/c.. Curcumin N. Sativa Casirivimab/i.. $2,100 NaHCO₃ Melatonin Quercetin Bamlanivimab/e.. Ensovibep >$2,000 pH+ Diet PVP-I Thermotherapy Ivermectin Regdanvimab $2,100 Lifestyle / free No prescription Prescription required High-cost Lowerrisk Higherrisk c19early.org May 2025 COVID-19 involves the interplay of 100+ host/viral proteins/factors, modulated by many treatments. 0.6% of 9,000+proposed treatments show efficacy with ≥3 studies.Protocols combine treatments, none are 100% effective.c19early analyzes over 5,700 studies for 135 treatments.
$0 $1,000 $2,000+ -20+% 0% 25% 50% Treatment cost (US$) Efficacy vs. cost for COVID-19 treatments +24 more high-profit -ve drugs Glenzocimab -60% Olokizumab -50% PPIs -46% BMS mAbs -36% Acetaminophen -28% Cenicriviroc -28% Lufotrelvir -22% CBD Plitidepsin Losartan Sargramostim Vit. B9 Ravulizumab Remdesivir C. Plasma Sarilumab Ibuprofen PPE Aspirin Molnupiravir mutagenic/teratogenic Paxlovid Favipiravir Famotidine Vitamin C Sotrovimab TMPRSS2 i.. Amubarvimab/r.. Azvudine NAC Vilobelimab Colchicine Budesonide Probiotics Zinc HCQ Nitric Oxide Antiandro.. Metformin Sleep Vitamin A Bebtelovimab H1RAs Sunlight H. Peroxide Vitamin D Exercise Fluvox. Tixagevimab/c.. Curcumin N. Sativa Casirivim.. NaHCO₃ Melatonin Quercetin Bamlan.. Ensovibep pH+ Diet PVP-I Thermotherapy Ivermectin Regdanvimab Lifestyle / free No prescription Prescription required High-cost Lowerrisk Higherrisk c19early.org May 2025 COVID-19 involves the interplay of100+ host/viral proteins/factors.0.6% of 9,000+ treatments showefficacy. Protocols combinetreatments. c19early analyzes5,700+ studies for 135 treatments.
$0 $500 $1,000+ COVID-19 treatment protocols efficacy vs. cost United Kingdom Russia USA Sudan Angola Colombia Kenya Mozambique Pakistan Argentina Vietnam Peru Philippines Spain Brazil Italy France Japan China Uzbekistan Nepal Ethiopia Iran Ghana Mexico South Korea Germany Bangladesh Saudi Arabia Algeria Morocco Yemen Poland India DR Congo Madagascar Thailand Uganda Venezuela Nigeria Egypt Bolivia Taiwan Zambia Fiji Bosnia-Herzegovina Ukraine Côte d'Ivoire Bulgaria Greece Slovakia Singapore Iceland New Zealand Mongolia Czechia Israel Trinidad and Tobago Hong Kong North Macedonia Belarus Qatar Panama Serbia CAR Treatment protocols varied widely around the world.Low-cost and non-prescription treatments reduce barriersto treatment—especially early treatment—and providecomplementary and synergistic benefits. More effective More expensive c19early.org May 2025 75% 50% 25% ≤0%
$0 $500 $1,000+ C19 treatment protocols avg. efficacy/cost United Kingdom Russia USA Sudan Angola Colombia Kenya Mozambique Pakistan Argentina Vietnam Peru Philippines Spain Brazil Italy France Japan China Uzbekistan Nepal Ethiopia Iran Ghana Mexico South Korea Germany Bangladesh Saudi Arabia Algeria Morocco Yemen Poland India DR Congo Madagascar Thailand Uganda Venezuela Nigeria Egypt Bolivia Taiwan Zambia Fiji Ukraine Côte d'Ivoire Eritrea Bulgaria Greece Slovakia Singapore New Zealand Mongolia Czechia Israel Trinidad and Tobago North Macedonia Belarus Qatar Panama Serbia Syria Treatment protocols varied widely.Low-cost and non-prescription treatmentsreduce barriers to treatment—especiallyearly treatment—and provide complementaryand synergistic benefits. More effective More expensive c19early.org May 2025 75% 50% 25% ≤0%
Azvudine Evusheld Sodium Bicarbonate Paxlovid Regdanvimab Vitamin B12 Sunlight Phthalocyanine Montelukast Alkalinization Fluvoxamine Famotidine Molnupiravir Quercetin Diet Bamlanivimab/e.. Hydrogen Peroxide TMPRSS2 inhibitors Budesonide Probiotics Casirivimab/i.. Sleep Curcumin Povidone-Iodine Nigella Sativa Melatonin Antihistamine H1RAs Acetaminophen ↑risk Exercise Vitamin D Antiandrogens Vitamin C PPIs ↑risk Colchicine Ivermectin Metformin Zinc HCQ 2020 2021 2023 2024 Pooled outcomes Specific outcome RCT pooled RCT specific Statistically significant ≥10% improvement ≥3 studies c19early.org May 2025 Time when COVID-19 studies showed efficacy
Azvudine Evusheld Sodium Bicarb.. Paxlovid Regdanvimab Vitamin B12 Sunlight Phthalocyanine Montelukast Alkalinization Fluvoxamine Famotidine Molnupiravir Quercetin Diet Bamlanivimab/e.. Hydrogen Peroxide TMPRSS2 inhibitors Budesonide Probiotics Casirivimab/i.. Sleep Curcumin Povidone-Iodine Nigella Sativa Melatonin H1RAs Acetaminophen ↑risk Exercise Vitamin D Antiandrogens Vitamin C PPIs ↑risk Colchicine Ivermectin Metformin Zinc HCQ 2020 2021 2023 2024 Pooled outcomes Specific outcome RCT pooled RCT specific Statistically significant ≥10% improvement ≥3 studies c19early.org May 2025 Time when COVID-19 studies showed efficacy
Timeline for when studies showed efficacy - details and limitations. 0.5% of treatments show efficacy.
May 2025
c19early.org
Cost per life saved from NNT in
studies to date
Melatonin
9
48%
  $8
Alkalinization
9
46%
  $9
Vitamin D
72
38%
  $10
Zinc
22
30%
  $16
Vitamin C
45
19%
  $18
HCQ
254
27%
  $26
Ivermectin
53
47%
  $26
Colchicine
43
28%
  $31
Aspirin
68
8%
  $45
Vitamin A
5
30%
  $45
Curcumin
8
63%
  $59
Famotidine
21
18%
  $94
Metformin
71
37%
  $121
Quercetin
5
61%
  $127
Probiotics
10
59%
  $172
Antiandrogens
32
37%
  $179
Nigella Sativa
5
57%
  $187
Fluvoxamine
10
44%
  $411
Budesonide
12
26%
  $574
Azvudine
25
29%
  $1,259
Favipiravir
40
11%
  $1,935
Tixagev../c..
10
40%
  $74,506
Regdanvimab
7
63%
  $139,860
Sotrovimab
14
46%
  $299,464
Bamlaniv../e..
13
54%
  $301,549
Casirivimab/..
11
20%
  $452,469
Bebtelovimab
4
60%
  $737,601
Remdesivir
67
1%
  $1,558,440
Paxlovid
41
22%
  $1,901,782
Molnupiravir
27
13%
  $2,400,867
Conv. Plasma
54
-2%
N/A
Acetaminophen
14
-24%
N/A
PPIs
20
-40%
N/A
Brensocatib
1
-41%
N/A
Treatment cost times median NNT - details and limitations. 0.5% of treatments show efficacy.
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All clinical results for selected treatments. 0.5% of treatments show efficacy.
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0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1 1.25 1.5 1.75 2+ Iota-carragee.. 80% [22-95%] 1 $1 394 very limited data Cost Studies Patients Improvement Relative Risk Chlorhexidine 79% [66-87%] 3 $1 509 limited data Proxalutamide 78% [70-83%] 4 $500 1,953 limited data Indomethacin 74% [-20-94%] 4 $5 605 limited data Cetylpyridin.. 68% [-620-99%] 1 $1 23 very limited data Regdanvimab 63% [51-71%] 11 $2,100 7,430 Mebendazole 62% [12-83%] 3 $1 411 very limited data Ivermectin 60% [52-67%] 105 $1 220,423 Chlorphenira.. 56% [46-64%] 3 $5 806 very limited data Thermotherapy 56% [9-78%] 4 $0 217 very limited data Povidone-Iod.. 51% [38-61%] 21 $1 3,202 Diet 51% [42-58%] 30 $0 693,870 Alkalinization 49% [36-59%] 14 $1 6,320 HH-120 49% [-60-84%] 2 $500 345 very limited data Ensovibep 47% [-108-87%] 2 $2,100 885 limited data pHOXWELL 47% [29-62%] 1 $10 556 very limited data Bemnifosbuvir 47% [-57-82%] 3 $500 359 very limited data Bamlaniv../e.. 47% [25-62%] 21 $1,250 35,320 variant dependent Quercetin 46% [20-64%] 12 $5 1,496 Resveratrol 44% [-4-70%] 3 $1 360 limited data Adintrevimab 43% [-169-88%] 2 $2,100 2,483 intramuscular Melatonin 43% [30-54%] 18 $1 14,301 Bromhexine 43% [-5-69%] 7 $5 875 very limited data Sodium Bicar.. 43% [23-58%] 6 $1 1,013 Casirivimab/i.. 43% [24-57%] 33 $2,100 59,746 variant dependent Nigella Sativa 43% [24-57%] 14 $5 3,333 Propolis 41% [-13-69%] 3 $1 410 very limited data Curcumin 41% [30-51%] 27 $5 14,886 Tixagev../c.. 40% [21-54%] 18 $855 29,862 variant dependent Fluvoxamine 39% [21-52%] 21 $4 38,283 Montelukast 39% [14-56%] 9 $2 2,943 limited data Exercise 39% [33-44%] 68 $0 1,939,060 Vitamin D 38% [32-43%] 125 $1 195,984 Hydrogen Per.. 38% [5-59%] 7 $1 835 very limited data Phthalocyan.. 38% [20-51%] 4 $5 5,245 Xiannuoxin 38% [-46-73%] 2 $106 1,027 very limited data Sunlight 37% [22-50%] 5 $0 19,665 H1RAs 36% [20-48%] 17 $5 72,015 Nitazoxanide 35% [-8-61%] 14 $4 3,632 Selenium 34% [-40-69%] 4 $1 21,452 Bebtelovimab 34% [-24-65%] 6 $1,200 13,329 intravenous Artemisinin 34% [11-51%] 3 $1 217 very limited data Vitamin A 31% [11-47%] 15 $2 22,297 Sleep 31% [23-39%] 16 $0 429,222 Metformin 31% [27-34%] 105 $10 358,795 Spironolactone 31% [15-44%] 12 $5 28,019 Antiandrogens 30% [21-38%] 49 $5 120,172 Nafamostat 30% [10-46%] 7 $1 16,265 very limited data Vitamin B12 30% [5-48%] 4 $1 11,407 Nitric Oxide 30% [1-50%] 13 $11 2,366 Hydroxychlor.. 28% [25-31%] 423 $1 593,922 Zinc 28% [18-36%] 47 $1 55,831 Probiotics 28% [18-36%] 28 $5 19,646 Budesonide 28% [18-36%] 15 $4 28,194 Colchicine 28% [18-36%] 57 $1 33,162 Ibuzatrelvir 27% [15-38%] 1 $1,390 126 very limited data Andrographol.. 27% [-8-50%] 7 $5 1,245 Vilobelimab 26% [-4-48%] 1 $6,350 368 intravenous N-acetylcys.. 25% [14-35%] 24 $1 26,243 Azvudine 25% [16-33%] 34 $25 42,905 Amubarv../r.. 25% [-70-66%] 4 $1,380 1,568 intravenous Lactoferrin 24% [-24-53%] 8 $5 1,419 TMPRSS2 inh. 23% [10-33%] 29 $5 19,149 Ensitrelvir 23% [-19-50%] 4 $500 3,535 very limited data Sotrovimab 22% [10-32%] 28 $2,100 56,351 variant dependent Niclosamide 21% [-47-57%] 6 $50 2,091 very limited data Vitamin C 21% [14-27%] 74 $1 89,000 Leritrelvir 21% [3-35%] 2 $50 1,399 very limited data Azelastine 21% [-3-39%] 3 $5 310 very limited data UDCA 19% [-3-36%] 21 $15 45,286 Camostat 18% [-3-34%] 16 $1 2,020 SNS812 17% [4-29%] 1 $1,000 90 very limited data Famotidine 17% [8-24%] 30 $5 114,119 Favipiravir 15% [5-24%] 71 $20 36,281 worse w/longer followup Vitamin K 14% [0-25%] 2 $1 7,806 very limited data Paxlovid 13% [9-17%] 81 $1,390 168,051 independent trials refused Atilotrelvir 13% [1-23%] 1 $65 1,213 very limited data Deuremidevir 11% [-1-21%] 2 $112 1,432 very limited data Molnupiravir 9% [2-16%] 51 $707 184,407 mutagenic/teratogenic Aspirin 8% [2-13%] 79 $1 188,049 Peg.. Lambda 7% [-138-63%] 4 $500 2,143 subcutaneous Empagliflozin 4% [-13-18%] 1 $300 4,271 very limited data PPE 2% [-25-24%] 4 $5 351,091 Ibuprofen 0% [-9-9%] 13 $1 54,707 Acebilustat 0% [-1462-94%] 1 $2,000 120 very limited data Levilimab 0% [-289-74%] 1 $2,000 206 subcutaneous Vidofludimus 0% [-597-86%] 1 $2,000 220 very limited data Sarilumab -0% [-21-17%] 11 $2,000 2,231 intravenous/subcutaneous Pomotrelvir -1% [-104-50%] 1 $1,390 230 very limited data Conv. Plasma -2% [-6-2%] 56 $5,000 31,387 intravenous Remdesivir -2% [-11-6%] 81 $3,120 203,016 worse w/longer followup Vadadustat -3% [-89-44%] 1 $596 448 very limited data Apremilast -3% [-42-25%] 2 $2,000 594 limited data Ravulizumab -5% [-45-24%] 2 $2,000 481 intravenous Lanadelumab -7% [-135-52%] 1 $10,000 55 very limited data Vitamin B9 -8% [-41-18%] 12 $1 54,954 Plasma-activ.. -9% [-234-64%] 1 $100 23 very limited data Razuprotafib -10% [-116-44%] 2 $2,000 134 subcutaneous Dornase alfa -12% [-87-34%] 3 $2,000 242 very limited data Sargramostim -13% [-85-31%] 4 $2,000 870 very limited data Brexanolone -14% [-129-43%] 1 $34,000 28 very limited data Losartan -15% [-127-42%] 5 $5 665 very limited data Pentoxifylline -15% [-363-71%] 3 $50 178 very limited data Dolutegravir -15% [-71-22%] 2 $130 1,600 intravenous Plitidepsin -16% [-356-71%] 2 $2,000 163 intravenous Cannabidiol -17% [-89-28%] 10 $25 17,988 Trimodulin -17% [-116-37%] 1 $2,000 166 intravenous Lufotrelvir -22% [-198-50%] 1 $2,000 58 intravenous Gimsilumab -22% [-91-22%] 1 $2,000 225 intravenous Pacritinib -28% [-210-47%] 1 $2,000 200 very limited data Cenicriviroc -28% [-66-1%] 3 $2,000 1,000 limited data Acetaminoph.. -28% [-41--17%] 27 $1 543,459 Crizanlizumab -29% [-103-18%] 2 $2,500 463 intravenous BMS mAbs -36% [-492-69%] 1 $2,100 210 subcutaneous Atovaquone -39% [-526-69%] 1 $50 60 very limited data Brensocatib -41% [-88--6%] 1 $2,000 404 very limited data Danicopan -43% [-168-24%] 1 $2,000 201 very limited data XAV-19 -45% [-221-35%] 2 $2,000 667 intravenous PPIs -46% [-67--28%] 40 $5 228,512 Olokizumab -50% [-309-45%] 1 $2,000 248 subcutaneous TRV027 -54% [-202-22%] 2 $2,000 318 intravenous Glenzocimab -60% [-236-24%] 1 $2,000 62 intravenous Siltuximab -64% [-252-23%] 1 $2,000 149 intravenous rNAPc2 -65% [-304-32%] 1 $2,000 156 very limited data Avdoralimab -68% [-226-13%] 1 $2,000 207 intravenous Zafirlukast -100% [-1933-80%] 1 $5 40 very limited data Posaconazole -131% [-200--78%] 1 $2,000 249 very limited data Emvododstat -132% [-628-26%] 1 $2,000 187 very limited data Goflikicept -135% [-492-7%] 1 $2,000 247 subcutaneous Pemivibart -150% [-6014-90%] 1 $5,775 477 intravenous Donidalorsen -151% [-602-11%] 1 $2,000 103 intravenous/subcutaneous Zenuzolac -200% [-2732-68%] 1 $500 90 very limited data Astodrimer So.. -205% [-7302-87%] 1 $10 197 very limited data All studies (pooled effects, all stages) c19early.org May 2025 Favors treatment Favors control
0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1 1.25 1.5 1.75 2+ Iota-carragee.. 80% 1 very limited data Studies, Improvement Relative Risk Chlorhexidine 79% 3 limited data Proxalutamide 78% 4 limited data Indomethacin 74% 4 limited data Cetylpyridin.. 68% 1 very limited data Regdanvimab 63% 11 Mebendazole 62% 3 very limited data Ivermectin 60% 105 Chlorphenira.. 56% 3 very limited data Thermotherapy 56% 4 very limited data Povidone-Iod.. 51% 21 Diet 51% 30 Alkalinization 49% 14 HH-120 49% 2 very limited data Ensovibep 47% 2 limited data pHOXWELL 47% 1 very limited data Bemnifosbuvir 47% 3 very limited data Bamlaniv../e.. 47% 21 variant dependent Quercetin 46% 12 Resveratrol 44% 3 limited data Adintrevimab 43% 2 intramuscular Melatonin 43% 18 Bromhexine 43% 7 very limited data Sodium Bicar.. 43% 6 Casirivimab/.. 43% 33 variant dependent Nigella Sativa 43% 14 Propolis 41% 3 very limited data Curcumin 41% 27 Tixagev../c.. 40% 18 variant dependent Fluvoxamine 39% 21 Montelukast 39% 9 limited data Exercise 39% 68 Vitamin D 38% 125 Hydrogen Per.. 38% 7 very limited data Phthalocyan.. 38% 4 Xiannuoxin 38% 2 very limited data Sunlight 37% 5 H1RAs 36% 17 Nitazoxanide 35% 14 Selenium 34% 4 Bebtelovimab 34% 6 intravenous Artemisinin 34% 3 very limited data Vitamin A 31% 15 Sleep 31% 16 Metformin 31% 105 Spironolactone 31% 12 Antiandrogens 30% 49 Nafamostat 30% 7 very limited data Vitamin B12 30% 4 Nitric Oxide 30% 13 Hydroxychlor.. 28% 423 Zinc 28% 47 Probiotics 28% 28 Budesonide 28% 15 Colchicine 28% 57 Ibuzatrelvir 27% 1 very limited data Andrographol.. 27% 7 Vilobelimab 26% 1 intravenous N-acetylcys.. 25% 24 Azvudine 25% 34 Amubarv../r.. 25% 4 intravenous Lactoferrin 24% 8 TMPRSS2 inh. 23% 29 Ensitrelvir 23% 4 very limited data Sotrovimab 22% 28 variant dependent Niclosamide 21% 6 very limited data Vitamin C 21% 74 Leritrelvir 21% 2 very limited data Azelastine 21% 3 very limited data UDCA 19% 21 Camostat 18% 16 SNS812 17% 1 very limited data Famotidine 17% 30 Favipiravir 15% 71 worse w/longer followup Vitamin K 14% 2 very limited data Paxlovid 13% 81 independent trials refused Atilotrelvir 13% 1 very limited data Deuremidevir 11% 2 very limited data Molnupiravir 9% 51 mutagenic/teratogenic Aspirin 8% 79 Peg.. Lambda 7% 4 subcutaneous Empagliflozin 4% 1 very limited data PPE 2% 4 Ibuprofen 0% 13 Acebilustat 0% 1 very limited data Levilimab 0% 1 subcutaneous Vidofludimus 0% 1 very limited data Sarilumab -0% 11 intravenous/subcutaneous Pomotrelvir -1% 1 very limited data Conv. Plasma -2% 56 intravenous Remdesivir -2% 81 worse w/longer followup Vadadustat -3% 1 very limited data Apremilast -3% 2 limited data Ravulizumab -5% 2 intravenous Lanadelumab -7% 1 very limited data Vitamin B9 -8% 12 Plasma-activ.. -9% 1 very limited data Razuprotafib -10% 2 subcutaneous Dornase alfa -12% 3 very limited data Sargramostim -13% 4 very limited data Brexanolone -14% 1 very limited data Losartan -15% 5 very limited data Pentoxifylline -15% 3 very limited data Dolutegravir -15% 2 intravenous Plitidepsin -16% 2 intravenous Cannabidiol -17% 10 Trimodulin -17% 1 intravenous Lufotrelvir -22% 1 intravenous Gimsilumab -22% 1 intravenous Pacritinib -28% 1 very limited data Cenicriviroc -28% 3 limited data Acetaminoph.. -28% 27 Crizanlizumab -29% 2 intravenous BMS mAbs -36% 1 subcutaneous Atovaquone -39% 1 very limited data Brensocatib -41% 1 very limited data Danicopan -43% 1 very limited data XAV-19 -45% 2 intravenous PPIs -46% 40 Olokizumab -50% 1 subcutaneous TRV027 -54% 2 intravenous Glenzocimab -60% 1 intravenous Siltuximab -64% 1 intravenous rNAPc2 -65% 1 very limited data Avdoralimab -68% 1 intravenous Zafirlukast -100% 1 very limited data Posaconazole -131% 1 very limited data Emvododstat -132% 1 very limited data Goflikicept -135% 1 subcutaneous Pemivibart -150% 1 intravenous Donidalorsen -151% 1 intravenous/subcutaneous Zenuzolac -200% 1 very limited data Astodrimer S.. -205% 1 very limited data All studies (pooled effects, all stages) c19early.org May 2025 Rotate device for details Favors treatment Favors control
Random effects meta-analysis of all studies (pooled effects, all stages). Treatments with ≤3 studies with distinct authors or with <50 control events are shown in grey. Pooled results across all stages and outcomes depend on the distribution of stages and outcomes tested - for example late stage treatment may be less effective and if the majority of studies are late stage this may obscure the efficacy of early treatment. Please see the specific stage and outcome analyses. Protocols typically combine multiple treatments which may be complementary and synergistic, and the SOC in studies often includes other treatments. 0.5% of proposed treatments show efficacy in clinical studies.
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Random effects meta-analysis of early treatment studies (pooled effects). Treatments with ≤3 studies with distinct authors or with <50 control events are shown in grey. Pooled results across all outcomes are affected by the distribution of outcomes tested, please see detail pages for specific outcome analysis. Protocols typically combine multiple treatments which may be complementary and synergistic, and the SOC in studies often includes other treatments. 0.5% of proposed treatments show efficacy in clinical studies.
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Random effects meta-analysis of all mortality results (all stages). Treatments with ≤3 studies with distinct authors or with <25 control events are shown in grey. Pooled results across all stages depend on the distribution of stages tested - for example late stage treatment may be less effective and if the majority of studies are late stage this may obscure the efficacy of early treatment. Please see the specific stage analyses. Protocols typically combine multiple treatments which may be complementary and synergistic, and the SOC in studies often includes other treatments. 0.5% of proposed treatments show efficacy in clinical studies.
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Random effects meta-analysis of early treatment mortality results. Treatments with ≤3 studies with distinct authors or with <25 control events are shown in grey. Protocols typically combine multiple treatments which may be complementary and synergistic, and the SOC in studies often includes other treatments. 0.5% of proposed treatments show efficacy in clinical studies.
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Random effects meta-analysis of prophylaxis studies (pooled effects). Treatments with ≤3 studies with distinct authors or with <50 control events are shown in grey. Pooled results across all outcomes are affected by the distribution of outcomes tested, please see detail pages for specific outcome analysis. Protocols typically combine multiple treatments which may be complementary and synergistic, and the SOC in studies often includes other treatments. 0.5% of proposed treatments show efficacy in clinical studies.
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Random effects meta-analysis of prophylaxis mortality results. Treatments with ≤3 studies with distinct authors or with <25 control events are shown in grey. Protocols typically combine multiple treatments which may be complementary and synergistic, and the SOC in studies often includes other treatments. 0.5% of proposed treatments show efficacy in clinical studies.
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Random effects meta-analysis of long covid results. Treatments with ≤3 studies with distinct authors or with <50 control events are shown in grey. Pooled results across all stages and outcomes depend on the distribution of stages and outcomes tested - for example late stage treatment may be less effective and if the majority of studies are late stage this may obscure the efficacy of early treatment. Please see the specific stage and outcome analyses. Protocols typically combine multiple treatments which may be complementary and synergistic, and the SOC in studies often includes other treatments. 0.5% of proposed treatments show efficacy in clinical studies.
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Random effects meta-analysis of transmission results. Treatments with ≤3 studies with distinct authors or with <50 control events are shown in grey. Pooled results across all stages and outcomes depend on the distribution of stages and outcomes tested - for example late stage treatment may be less effective and if the majority of studies are late stage this may obscure the efficacy of early treatment. Please see the specific stage and outcome analyses. Protocols typically combine multiple treatments which may be complementary and synergistic, and the SOC in studies often includes other treatments. 0.5% of proposed treatments show efficacy in clinical studies.
LATE TREATMENT
Physician / TeamLocationPatients HospitalizationHosp. MortalityDeath
Dr. David Uip (*) Brazil 2,200 38.6% (850) Ref. 2.5% (54) Ref.
EARLY TREATMENT - 40 physicians/teams
Physician / TeamLocationPatients HospitalizationHosp. ImprovementImp. MortalityDeath ImprovementImp.
Dr. Roberto Alfonso Accinelli
0/360 deaths for treatment within 3 days
Peru 1,265 0.6% (7) 77.5%
Dr. Mohammed Tarek Alam
patients up to 84 years old
Bangladesh 100 0.0% (0) 100.0%
Dr. Oluwagbenga Alonge Nigeria 310 0.0% (0) 100.0%
Dr. Raja Bhattacharya
up to 88yo, 81% comorbidities
India 148 1.4% (2) 44.9%
Dr. Flavio Cadegiani Brazil 3,450 0.1% (4) 99.7% 0.0% (0) 100.0%
Dr. Alessandro Capucci Italy 350 4.6% (16) 88.2%
Dr. Shankara Chetty South Africa 8,000 0.0% (0) 100.0%
Dr. Deborah Chisholm USA 100 0.0% (0) 100.0%
Dr. Ryan Cole USA 400 0.0% (0) 100.0% 0.0% (0) 100.0%
Dr. Marco Cosentino
vs. 3-3.8% mortality during period; earlier treatment better
Italy 392 6.4% (25) 83.5% 0.3% (1) 89.6%
Dr. Jeff Davis USA 6,000 0.0% (0) 100.0%
Dr. Dhanajay India 500 0.0% (0) 100.0%
Dr. Bryan Tyson & Dr. George Fareed USA 20,000 0.0% (6) 99.9% 0.0% (4) 99.2%
Dr. Raphael Furtado Brazil 170 0.6% (1) 98.5% 0.0% (0) 100.0%
Rabbi Yehoshua Gerzi Israel 860 0.1% (1) 99.7% 0.0% (0) 100.0%
Dr. Heather Gessling USA 1,500 0.1% (1) 97.3%
Dr. Ellen Guimarães Brazil 500 1.6% (8) 95.9% 0.4% (2) 83.7%
Dr. Syed Haider USA 4,000 0.1% (5) 99.7% 0.0% (0) 100.0%
Dr. Mark Hancock USA 24 0.0% (0) 100.0%
Dr. Sabine Hazan USA 1,000 0.0% (0) 100.0%
Dr. Mollie James USA 3,500 1.1% (40) 97.0% 0.0% (1) 98.8%
Dr. Roberta Lacerda Brazil 550 1.5% (8) 96.2% 0.4% (2) 85.2%
Dr. Katarina Lindley USA 100 5.0% (5) 87.1% 0.0% (0) 100.0%
Dr. Ben Marble USA 150,000 0.0% (4) 99.9%
Dr. Edimilson Migowski Brazil 2,000 0.3% (7) 99.1% 0.1% (2) 95.9%
Dr. Abdulrahman Mohana Saudi Arabia 2,733 0.0% (0) 100.0%
Dr. Carlos Nigro Brazil 5,000 0.9% (45) 97.7% 0.5% (23) 81.3%
Dr. Benoit Ochs Luxembourg 800 0.0% (0) 100.0%
Dr. Ortore Italy 240 1.2% (3) 96.8% 0.0% (0) 100.0%
Dr. Valerio Pascua
one death for a patient presenting on the 5th day in need of supplemental oxygen
Honduras 415 6.3% (26) 83.8% 0.2% (1) 90.2%
Dr. Sebastian Pop Romania 300 0.0% (0) 100.0%
Dr. Brian Proctor USA 869 2.3% (20) 94.0% 0.2% (2) 90.6%
Dr. Anastacio Queiroz Brazil 700 0.0% (0) 100.0%
Dr. Didier Raoult France 8,315 2.6% (214) 93.3% 0.1% (5) 97.6%
Dr. Karin Ried
up to 99yo, 73% comorbidities, av. age 63
Turkey 237 0.4% (1) 82.8%
Dr. Roman Rozencwaig
patients up to 86 years old
Canada 80 0.0% (0) 100.0%
Dr. Vipul Shah India 8,000 0.1% (5) 97.5%
Dr. Silvestre Sobrinho Brazil 116 8.6% (10) 77.7% 0.0% (0) 100.0%
Dr. Unknown Brazil 957 1.7% (16) 95.7% 0.2% (2) 91.5%
Dr. Vladimir Zelenko USA 2,200 0.5% (12) 98.6% 0.1% (2) 96.3%
Mean improvement with early treatment protocols 238,381 HospitalizationHosp. 94.4% MortalityDeath 94.9%
Physician results with early treatment protocols compared to no early treatment. These results are subject to selection and ascertainment bias and more accurate analysis requires details of the patient populations and followup, however results are consistently better across many teams, and consistent with the extensive controlled trial evidence that shows a significant reduction in risk with many early treatments, and improved results with the use of multiple treatments in combination.
Muthusamy
In Silico study identifying 32 anti-parisitic compounds effectively inhibiting the RBD of the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein, showing ivermectin and..
Pickard
In Vitro studying identifying 35 compounds that inhibit SARS-CoV-2 in Vero cells and hepatocytes when treated prior to infection, and several..
Bess
In Silico study showing potential benefit of mebendazole and zinc against SARS-CoV-2 according to an AI platform, eVir, designed to identify..
Agamah
In Silico study identifying potential drugs beneficial for COVID-19 by integrating transcriptomics, proteomics, metabolomics, lipidomics, and drug..
El-Tanani
RCT 69 outpatients in Jordan, showing improved viral clearance and CRP with mebendazole. Authors note that mebendazole, like ivermectin, has been..
Hamdan
In Silico study showing that H1RA antihistamines, including bilastine, fexofenadine, mizolastine, rupatadine, terfenadine, and the leukotriene..
Vukosavljević
Cross-sectional observational study of 175 adults in Serbia showing high prevalence (73%) of self-medication during the COVID-19 pandemic, primarily..
Yang
Bioinformatic study analyzing gene expression data from COVID-19 patients to identify six programmed cell death (PCD) related biomarkers (CCNB1,..
Htet
Systematic review and meta-analysis of 16 RCTs with 19,797 COVID-19 patients, showing a statistically significant increased risk of hepatotoxicity..
Lundrigan
In Vitro study showing that site-specific fluorescent labeling of SARS-CoV-2 Nsp13 helicase enables monitoring of its binding activity with nucleic..
Sanchez
In Vitro study showing that tyrosine kinase receptor (RTK) inhibitors lapatinib and GW441756 significantly reduce SARS-CoV-2 replication in human..
Xue
Multi-omics and rat model study identifying the VCL/ICAM-1 pathway as a key driver of lung inflammatory damage in SARS-CoV-2 Omicron infection...
Najimi
In Vitro and In Silico study showing that l-tartaric acid, l-ascorbic acid, and Curcuma longa extract (curcumin, demethoxycurcumin,..
Najimi
In Vitro and In Silico study showing that l-tartaric acid, l-ascorbic acid, and Curcuma longa extract (curcumin, demethoxycurcumin,..
Kroon
Crossover study of 9 healthy males comparing curcumin bioavailability from three commercial formulations (AOV, Longvida, NovaSOL). None of the three..
Chang
90 patient early treatment RCT: 17% improved viral clearance (p=0.02)
Htet
Systematic review and meta-analysis of 16 RCTs with 19,797 COVID-19 patients, showing a statistically significant increased risk of hepatotoxicity..
Kocas
In Vitro study showing enhanced intracellular uptake of ivermectin through liposomal encapsulation in Vero E6 cells with reduced cytotoxicity. While..
Sarhan
108 patient late treatment RCT: 35% higher mortality (p=0.39) and 35% lower hospital discharge (p=0.39)
Johnson
496 patients prophylaxis: 53% lower PASC (p=0.02)
Tanriverdi
178 patients sufficiency: 60% lower mortality (p=0.07)
Baby
Review of TMPRSS2 as a drug target to combat influenza and coronavirus infections. Authors highlight that TMPRSS2, a transmembrane serine protease..
Gómez-Zorrilla
69 patient late treatment RCT: 76% lower progression (p=0.05) and 40% improved recovery (p=0.08)
Muniz
Non-COVID-19 specific RCT with 150 participants in Brazil showing reduced frequency (21.5% lower) and severity (11% lower) of upper respiratory..
Muniz
Non-COVID-19 specific RCT with 150 participants in Brazil showing reduced frequency (21.5% lower) and severity (11% lower) of upper respiratory..
Recent studies (see the individual treatment pages for all studies):

May 7
Wang et al., American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, doi:10.1164/ajrccm.2025.211.Abstracts.A3027 Early and Delayed Administration of Azvudine on Mortality of Adult Patients With COVID-19: A Retrospective Study
PSM retrospective 604 hospitalized COVID-19 patients showing lower mortality with azvudine. Detailed results are only provided for the subgroup of non-mild patients.
May 3
Kroon et al., iScience, doi:10.1016/j.isci.2025.112575 A pharmacokinetic study and critical reappraisal of curcumin formulations enhancing bioavailability
Crossover study of 9 healthy males comparing curcumin bioavailability from three commercial formulations (AOV, Longvida, NovaSOL). None of the three products tested contained the claimed amount of curcumin. Results showed plasma levels of..
May 2
Kocas et al., AAPS PharmSciTech, doi:10.1208/s12249-025-03113-8 Enhancing Intracellular Uptake of Ivermectin through Liposomal Encapsulation
In Vitro study showing enhanced intracellular uptake of ivermectin through liposomal encapsulation in Vero E6 cells with reduced cytotoxicity. While free ivermectin showed a half-maximal cytotoxic concentration (CC50) of 10 μM, liposomal ..
May 2
Khoo et al., medRxiv, doi:10.1101/2025.05.01.25326797 A randomised-controlled Phase I de-escalation trial of Molnupiravir and Nirmatrelvir/Ritonavir combination for mild-moderate SARS-CoV-2 infection
1% worse viral clearance (p=0.94). Randomized open-label phase I trial of 24 outpatients with mild-moderate COVID-19 showing safety and tolerability of combined molnupiravir and paxlovid therapy. The paper reports that the control group received standard of care and "..
Apr 30
Bath et al., Health Technology Assessment, doi:10.3310/MTRS8833 Lessons from the PROTECT-CH COVID-19 platform trial in care homes
Discussion of a planned COVID-19 platform trial (PROTECT-CH) in care homes that failed to start recruitment. The trial was designed to test prophylactic antiviral interventions (initially ciclesonide and niclosamide) to reduce SARS-CoV-2 ..
Apr 30
Tanriverdi et al., International Journal of Tokat Medical Sciences, 17:18-25 COVİD-19 Pnömonisi Gelişen Hastalarda Vitamin D Düzeylerinin Hastane Yatış Süresi ve Mortalite ile İlişkisinin Değerlendirilmesi: Retrospektif Analiz
60% lower mortality (p=0.07). Retrospective 178 hospitalized COVID-19 pneumonia patients showing higher mortality with lower vitamin D levels.
Apr 28
Najimi et al., ChemistrySelect, doi:10.1002/slct.202406035 Phytochemical Inhibitors of SARS‐CoV‐2 Entry: Targeting the ACE2‐RBD Interaction with l‐Tartaric Acid, l‐Ascorbic Acid, and Curcuma longa Extract
In Vitro and In Silico study showing that l-tartaric acid, l-ascorbic acid, and Curcuma longa extract (curcumin, demethoxycurcumin, bisdemethoxycurcumin) inhibit the SARS-CoV-2 spike RBD interaction with human ACE2. Authors demonstrate by..
Apr 25
Maguire et al., Communications Medicine, doi:10.1038/s43856-025-00844-4 Dissecting clinical features of COVID-19 in a cohort of 21,312 acute care patients
Retrospective 21,312 acute care COVID-19 patients in the USA showing that low albumin levels were one of the best predictors of disease severity, with hypoalbuminemia associated with higher rates of severe/critical disease trajectories an..
Apr 24
Åkesson et al., Open Forum Infectious Diseases, doi:10.1093/ofid/ofaf246 Aerosolized dornase alfa (DNase I) for the treatment of severe respiratory failure in COVID-19: a randomized controlled trial
11% higher mortality (p=1) and 2% worse recovery (p=0.94). RCT 76 hospitalized COVID-19 patients showing no significant difference with inhaled dornase alfa (DNase I) for resolution of hypoxia or other clinical outcomes.
Apr 22
Gómez-Zorrilla et al., Authorea Inc., doi:10.22541/au.174532324.40343996/v1 Zinc adjuvant treatment in SARS-CoV-2: a randomized clinical trial
76% lower progression (p=0.05) and 40% improved recovery (p=0.08). RCT 71 hospitalized COVID-19 patients showing reduced disease progression with zinc treatment. In this open-label trial, patients were randomized to receive standard of care alone or with zinc acetate (90 mg/day) for 14 days. Disease prog..
Apr 21
Ferrer et al., Cureus, doi:10.7759/cureus.82736 Intranasal Chlorpheniramine for Early Symptomatic Treatment of COVID-19 and the Impact on Long-COVID
Review of intranasal chlorpheniramine maleate (iCPM) as a therapy for COVID-19 and long COVID. Authors explore how iCPM combines antihistamine activity via H1 receptor antagonism with bitter taste receptor (T2R) activation to address both..
Apr 18
Kofler et al., iScience, doi:10.1016/j.isci.2025.112105 M-Motif, a potential non-conventional NLS in YAP/TAZ and other cellular and viral proteins that inhibits classic protein import
In Vitro study showing that TAZ/YAP proteins contain an M-motif, a novel type of nuclear localization signal that can inhibit classic protein import and may play a role in viral immune evasion. Authors identified that this M-motif consist..
Apr 18
Madawi et al., Journal of Drug Delivery Science and Technology, doi:10.1016/j.jddst.2025.106941 Development and Optimization of Lyophilized Dry Emulsion Tablet for Improved Oral Delivery of Ivermectin
In Vitro and rabbit study showing that rapidly disintegrating lyophilized dry‑emulsion tablets (IVM‑LDET) markedly improve oral ivermectin delivery. Authors applied a quality‑by‑design approach to oil‑in‑water emulsions..
Apr 16
Morello et al., Italian Journal of Pediatrics, doi:10.1186/s13052-025-01961-5 Role of nutrient supplements in children with post-COVID condition: a retrospective preliminary observation and narrative review
Retrospective 1,243 children with COVID-19 showing lower risk of long COVID at 6 months when treated with a Multi-Element Product (MEP) containing antioxidants and anti-inflammatory compounds (magnesium 200 mg, quercetin 150 mg, curcumin ..
Apr 11
Kane et al., NCT04590547 Safety, Tolerability and Efficacy and Dose Response of GLS-1027 in the Prevention of Severe Pneumonitis Caused by SARS-CoV-2 Infection
200% higher mortality (p=0.34), 1% worse recovery (p=0.99), and 1% shorter hospitalization (p=0.87). RCT 132 hospitalized COVID-19 patients showing no significant difference in outcomes with zenuzolac (GLS-1027) treatment.
Apr 11
Raspado et al., JMIR Formative Research, doi:10.2196/66509 Oxidative Stress Markers and Prediction of Severity With a Machine Learning Approach in Hospitalized Patients With COVID-19 and Severe Lung Disease: Observational, Retrospective, Single-Center Feasibility Study
Retrospective 28 hospitalized COVID-19 patients showing an association between oxidative stress biomarkers and disease severity. Lower zinc and thiol levels, higher Cu/Zn ratios, and increased high-sensitivity C-reactive protein (hs-CRP) ..
Apr 11
Johnson et al., Journal of Clinical and Translational Science, doi:10.1017/cts.2024.1162 Is PHASTR faster? A target trial emulation case study in the N3C
53% lower PASC (p=0.02). N3C target trial emulation study with 9,660 adult COVID-19 patients, showing metformin associated with lower risk of long COVID or death.
Apr 9
Yu et al., VIEW, doi:10.1002/VIW.20240075 The effectiveness and safety of azvudine treatment in COVID‐19 patients with kidney disease based on a multicenter retrospective cohort study
38% lower mortality (p<0.0001) and 21% lower progression (p=0.03). PSM retrospective 4,192 hospitalized COVID-19 patients with kidney disease showing significantly reduced all-cause mortality and disease progression with azvudine.
Apr 9
Martino et al., mBio, doi:10.1128/mbio.04015-24 SARS-CoV-2 infectivity can be modulated through bacterial grooming of the glycocalyx
In Vitro study showing that certain gut bacteria can modulate SARS-CoV-2 infection by degrading heparan sulfate (HS) on cell surfaces. Authors found that the abundance of HS-modifying bacteria inversely correlates with age, sex, and COVID..
Apr 8
Wang et al., Cell Reports, doi:10.1016/j.celrep.2025.115543 Antibody evasiveness of SARS-CoV-2 subvariants KP.3.1.1 and XEC
In Vitro study showing that VYD222 (pemivibart) shows reduced efficacy against emerging SARS-CoV-2 variants KP.3.1.1 and XEC due to mutations that affect RBD conformation and antibody binding.
Apr 8
Joshi et al., Clinical and Translational Medicine, doi:10.1002/ctm2.70275 Severe SARS‐CoV‐2 infection in diabetes was rescued in mice supplemented with metformin and/or αKG, and patients taking metformin, via HIF1α‐IFN axis
In Vitro and mouse study showing that metformin and/or alpha-ketoglutarate (αKG) supplementation reduces SARS-CoV-2 infection severity in diabetic mice by modulating the HIF1α–interferon axis. Diabetic mice exhibited elevated viral loads,..
Apr 7
Liu et al., Frontiers in Nutrition, doi:10.3389/fnut.2025.1476622 Low vitamin K status is a potential risk factor for COVID-19 infected patients: a systematic review and meta-analysis
Meta-analysis of 6 studies examining vitamin K status in COVID-19 patients showing that infected patients have significantly higher levels of dephosphorylated-uncarboxylated Matrix Gla Protein (dp-ucMGP), indicating lower vitamin K status..
Apr 7
Reis et al., Scientific Reports, doi:10.1038/s41598-025-92242-y Antiviral effect of Bromelain combined with acetylcysteine against SARS-CoV-2 Omicron variant
In Vitro and Ex Vivo study showing that BromAc (bromelain and N-acetylcysteine) exhibits antiviral activity against SARS-CoV-2 Omicron variant. Authors demonstrate that BromAc at 250 μg/mL significantly reduces infectious viral particles ..
We aim to cover the most promising early treatments for COVID-19. We use pre-specified effect extraction criteria that prioritizes more serious outcomes, for details see methods. For specific outcomes and different treatment stages see the individual pages. Not all treatments are covered here, effectiveness has been reported for many other treatments in studies. Of the 5,701 studies, 2,687 present results comparing with a control group, 2,470 are treatment studies, and 217 analyze outcomes based on serum levels. There are 109 animal studies, 216 in silico studies, 405 in vitro studies, 449 reviews, and 238 meta analyses.
Please send us corrections, updates, or comments. c19early involves the extraction of 100,000+ datapoints from thousands of papers. Community updates help ensure high accuracy. Treatments and other interventions are complementary. All practical, effective, and safe means should be used based on risk/benefit analysis. No treatment or intervention is 100% available and effective for all current and future variants. We do not provide medical advice. Before taking any medication, consult a qualified physician who can provide personalized advice and details of risks and benefits based on your medical history and situation. IMA and WCH provide treatment protocols.
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