c19early.org COVID-19 treatment researchCOVID-19 treatments

COVID-19 treatment: real-time analysis of 6,741 studies

17 million hours of research for 227 treatments shows that COVID-19 was avoidable. Direct treatment to the respiratory tract minimizes transmission and progression. Many systemic treatments and lifestyle choices reduce risk. Adoption of effective treatments was very slow, inconsistent, and biased towards high-profit.

c19early.org
October 2026

All studies (pooled effects, all stages)

TreatmentImprovementRR · 95% CIStudiesPatientsCostRelative Risk
Iota-carragee..80%0.20 · 0.05–0.781394$1very limited data Proxalutamide78%0.22 · 0.17–0.3041K$500limited data Indomethacin74%0.26 · 0.06–1.204605$5limited data Chlorhexidine70%0.30 · 0.21–0.425675$1limited data SA5867%0.33 · 0.13–0.8334K$700limited data Olgotrelvir67%0.33 · 0.01–8.1811K$1,000very limited data Mebendazole62%0.38 · 0.17–0.883411$1very limited data Ivermectin61%0.39 · 0.33–0.47106220K$1 Chlorphenira..56%0.44 · 0.36–0.543806$5very limited data Thermotherapy56%0.44 · 0.22–0.914217$0very limited data Regdanvimab55%0.45 · 0.28–0.70127K$2,100 SNS81252%0.48 · 0.30–0.77190$1,000very limited data Diet51%0.49 · 0.42–0.5830690K$0 HOCl50%0.50 · 0.19–1.323341$1very limited data Inhaled Heparin50%0.50 · 0.30–0.833493$100limited data Alkalinization49%0.51 · 0.41–0.64146K$1 HH-12049%0.51 · 0.16–1.602345$500very limited data Povidone-Iod..48%0.52 · 0.42–0.65212K$1 Ensovibep47%0.53 · 0.13–2.082885$2,100limited data Bamlaniv../e..46%0.54 · 0.39–0.762230K$1,250variant dependent Casirivimab/i..45%0.55 · 0.41–0.743450K$2,100variant dependent Resveratrol44%0.56 · 0.30–1.043360$1limited data Nigella Sativa44%0.56 · 0.43–0.73153K$5 Adintrevimab43%0.57 · 0.12–2.6922K$2,100intramuscular Bromhexine43%0.57 · 0.31–1.057875$5very limited data Sodium Bicar..43%0.57 · 0.42–0.7761K$1 Propolis41%0.59 · 0.31–1.133410$1very limited data Curcumin41%0.59 · 0.50–0.702815K$5 Sunlight39%0.61 · 0.50–0.74619K$0 Fluvoxamine39%0.61 · 0.47–0.782130K$4 Exercise39%0.61 · 0.56–0.67681M$0 Montelukast39%0.61 · 0.44–0.8692K$2limited data Hydrogen Per..39%0.61 · 0.40–0.948847$1very limited data Azelastine39%0.61 · 0.38–1.004760$5very limited data Vitamin D38%0.62 · 0.57–0.67138200K$1 Epigallocatechin Gallate38%0.62 · 0.43–0.9021K$5very limited data Cetylpyridin..38%0.62 · 0.45–0.854157$1limited data Phthalocyan..38%0.62 · 0.49–0.8045K$5 Xiannuoxin38%0.62 · 0.27–1.4621K$106very limited data H1RAs37%0.63 · 0.50–0.781770K$5 Sentinox37%0.63 · 0.12–3.38139$25very limited data Nitazoxanide36%0.64 · 0.39–1.04143K$4 Quercetin35%0.65 · 0.49–0.859841$5 Nitric Oxide35%0.65 · 0.46–0.91142K$11 Selenium34%0.66 · 0.31–1.40421K$1 Bebtelovimab34%0.66 · 0.35–1.24613K$1,200intravenous Artemisinin34%0.66 · 0.49–0.893217$1very limited data Melatonin34%0.66 · 0.58–0.761814K$1 Vitamin A33%0.67 · 0.51–0.881422K$2 Bemnifosbuvir32%0.68 · 0.27–1.7442K$500very limited data Metformin32%0.68 · 0.65–0.72114360K$10 Spironolactone31%0.69 · 0.56–0.851228K$5 Sleep31%0.69 · 0.62–0.7717430K$0 Antiandrogens30%0.70 · 0.62–0.7949120K$5 Nafamostat30%0.70 · 0.54–0.90716K$1very limited data Vitamin B1230%0.70 · 0.52–0.95411K$1 Zinc30%0.70 · 0.62–0.804050K$1 Tixagev../c..29%0.71 · 0.52–0.962030K$855variant dependent Inosine Pran..29%0.71 · 0.58–0.872414$50limited data Hydroxychlor..28%0.72 · 0.69–0.75425590K$1 Niclosamide28%0.72 · 0.57–0.9172K$50very limited data Probiotics27%0.73 · 0.64–0.822919K$5 Ibuzatrelvir27%0.73 · 0.62–0.851126$1,390very limited data Budesonide27%0.73 · 0.64–0.831528K$4 Andrograph..27%0.73 · 0.50–1.0871K$5 Azvudine27%0.73 · 0.67–0.814250K$25 Vilobelimab26%0.74 · 0.52–1.041368$6,350intravenous Amubarv../r..25%0.75 · 0.34–1.7041K$1,380intravenous N-acetylcys..24%0.76 · 0.68–0.852626K$1 Lactoferrin24%0.76 · 0.47–1.2481K$5 NaCl23%0.77 · 0.64–0.9191K$0 TMPRSS2 inh.23%0.77 · 0.67–0.902919K$5 Colchicine23%0.77 · 0.69–0.865430K$1 Sotrovimab22%0.78 · 0.68–0.902950K$2,100variant dependent Vitamin C21%0.79 · 0.73–0.867280K$1 Leritrelvir21%0.79 · 0.65–0.9721K$88very limited data UDCA18%0.82 · 0.64–1.032240K$15 Camostat18%0.82 · 0.66–1.02162K$1 Famotidine16%0.84 · 0.76–0.9329110K$5 Ratutrelvir14%0.86 · 0.76–0.97150$1,500very limited data Vitamin K14%0.86 · 0.75–1.0027K$1very limited data Atilotrelvir13%0.87 · 0.77–0.9911K$65very limited data Ensitrelvir12%0.88 · 0.78–0.99106K$1,400very limited data Paxlovid12%0.88 · 0.85–0.9289170K$1,390independent trials refused Deuremidevir11%0.89 · 0.79–1.0121K$112very limited data Favipiravir11%0.89 · 0.82–0.977430K$20worse w/longer followup Tocilizumab8%0.92 · 0.80–1.064821K$2,000 Aspirin8%0.92 · 0.87–0.9879180K$1 Molnupiravir5%0.95 · 0.88–1.0354180K$707mutagenic/teratogenic Empagliflozin4%0.96 · 0.84–1.1114K$300very limited data Masks2%0.98 · 0.76–1.254350K$5 Ibuprofen1%0.99 · 0.91–1.091450K$1 Acebilustat0%1.00 · 0.06–15.61120$2,000very limited data Levilimab0%1.00 · 0.26–3.891206$2,000subcutaneous Vidofludimus0%1.00 · 0.14–6.971220$2,000very limited data Verapamil0%1.00 · 0.21–4.791144$5very limited data iC1e/K0%1.00 · 0.07–13.9120$10,000intravenous Adalimumab0%1.00 · 0.27–3.68168$1,000very limited data Zunsemetinib0%1.00 · 0.07–13.9120$1,000very limited data Brilacidin0%1.00 · 0.26–3.811120$2,000intravenous Sarilumab0%1.00 · 0.83–1.21112K$2,000intravenous/subcutaneous Pomotrelvir−1%1.01 · 0.50–2.041230$1,390very limited data Elderberry−1%1.01 · 0.98–1.041171$25very limited data Conv. Plasma−2%1.02 · 0.98–1.065830K$5,000intravenous Vadadustat−3%1.03 · 0.56–1.891448$596very limited data Apremilast−3%1.03 · 0.75–1.422594$2,000limited data DFV890−3%1.03 · 0.41–2.591142$2,000very limited data Dimethyl fumarate−3%1.03 · 0.71–1.481713$20very limited data rhu-pGSN−3%1.03 · 0.16–6.87161$5,000intravenous Ropeginterferon alfa-2b−3%1.03 · 0.10–11.11132$10,000subcutaneous Remdesivir−4%1.04 · 0.96–1.1381200K$3,120worse w/longer followup Aviptadil−5%1.05 · 0.63–1.743775$1,000limited data Losartan−5%1.05 · 0.68–1.6271K$5limited data Interleukin-2−5%1.05 · 0.81–1.36294$2,100intravenous Nicotine−5%1.05 · 0.74–1.501213$20very limited data Ravulizumab−5%1.05 · 0.76–1.452481$2,000intravenous HuMax-IL8−6%1.06 · 0.46–2.47143$10,000intravenous AER002−6%1.06 · 0.96–1.18136$2,000intravenous Lanadelumab−7%1.07 · 0.48–2.35155$10,000very limited data Vitamin B9−8%1.08 · 0.82–1.411250K$1 CK0802−8%1.08 · 0.33–3.57130$5,000intravenous Plasma-activ..−9%1.09 · 0.36–3.34123$100very limited data Ibrutinib−9%1.09 · 0.07–16.4146$9,000very limited data FX06−10%1.10 · 0.47–2.56149$10,000intravenous Diacerein−10%1.10 · 0.57–2.11114$10very limited data Razuprotafib−10%1.10 · 0.56–2.162134$2,000subcutaneous Gimsilumab−10%1.10 · 0.70–1.801225$2,000intravenous Iodine−10%1.10 · 0.55–2.211141$1very limited data Lopinavir/r..−11%1.11 · 0.96–1.281816K$50 Dexamethas..−11%1.11 · 0.96–1.281528K$1 Gabapentin−11%1.11 · 0.94–1.321129$10very limited data Dornase alfa−12%1.12 · 0.66–1.873242$2,000very limited data Sargramostim−13%1.13 · 0.69–1.854870$2,000very limited data Conestat alfa−14%1.14 · 0.08–15.42121$79,000intravenous Brexanolone−14%1.14 · 0.57–2.29128$34,000very limited data Peg.. Lambda−15%1.15 · 0.64–2.0752K$500subcutaneous Efmarodocokin Alfa−15%1.15 · 0.59–2.111266$2,000intravenous Pentoxifylline−15%1.15 · 0.29–4.633178$50very limited data Dolutegravir−15%1.15 · 0.78–1.7121K$130intravenous Plitidepsin−16%1.16 · 0.29–4.562163$2,000intravenous MAS825−16%1.16 · 0.74–1.831138$5,000intravenous Trimodulin−17%1.17 · 0.63–2.161166$2,000intravenous Losmapimod−18%1.18 · 0.79–1.76148$2,000very limited data Amantadine−19%1.19 · 0.53–2.673527$10very limited data Silymarin−20%1.20 · 0.36–4.02150$5very limited data Metronidazole−20%1.20 · 0.19–7.77144$5very limited data Lufotrelvir−22%1.22 · 0.50–2.98158$2,000intravenous Defibrotide−23%1.23 · 0.66–2.271150$100,000intravenous Cannabidiol−23%1.23 · 0.78–1.951219K$25 Tenecteplase−25%1.25 · 0.15–10.5113$8,000intravenous Eritoran−26%1.26 · 0.43–3.74196$2,500intravenous Pacritinib−28%1.28 · 0.53–3.101200$2,000very limited data Cenicriviroc−28%1.28 · 0.99–1.6631K$2,000limited data Acetaminoph..−29%1.29 · 1.17–1.4128540K$1 Crizanlizumab−29%1.29 · 0.82–2.032463$2,500intravenous Voxvoganan−29%1.29 · 0.20–8.28123$200very limited data Cyproheptadine−30%1.30 · 0.73–2.332136$10very limited data Astegolimab−31%1.31 · 0.69–2.331264$2,000intravenous Alunacedase alfa−31%1.31 · 0.51–3.381178$2,000intravenous Belnacasan−34%1.34 · 0.78–2.29131$1,000very limited data Darunavir−34%1.34 · 0.82–2.2052K$40very limited data Tradipitant−36%1.36 · 0.70–2.611145$1,200very limited data BMS mAbs−36%1.36 · 0.31–5.921210$2,100subcutaneous Domperidone−36%1.36 · 0.83–2.231173$10very limited data Zansecimab−36%1.36 · 0.51–3.63195$2,000intravenous GPAT−38%1.38 · 1.05–1.811243$50very limited data Atovaquone−39%1.39 · 0.31–6.26160$50very limited data GB0139−40%1.40 · 0.36–5.49141$2,000very limited data Brensocatib−41%1.41 · 1.06–1.881404$2,000very limited data Danicopan−43%1.43 · 0.76–2.681201$2,000very limited data Fenretinide−44%1.44 · 0.71–2.931351$700very limited data XAV-19−45%1.45 · 0.65–3.212667$2,000intravenous PPIs−46%1.46 · 1.28–1.6740220K$5 Beta-glucans−49%1.49 · 0.24–9.23264$25very limited data Olokizumab−50%1.50 · 0.55–4.091248$2,000subcutaneous Ixekizumab−50%1.50 · 0.29–7.81132$5,000subcutaneous Edaravone−50%1.50 · 0.28–7.99138$5,000intravenous TRV027−54%1.54 · 0.78–3.022318$2,000intravenous Glenzocimab−60%1.60 · 0.76–3.36162$2,000intravenous Asapiprant−63%1.63 · 0.78–3.421194$1,000very limited data Siltuximab−64%1.64 · 0.77–3.521149$2,000intravenous rNAPc2−65%1.65 · 0.68–4.041156$3,000subcutaneous Avdoralimab−68%1.68 · 0.87–3.261207$2,000intravenous Cytokine Adsorption−72%1.72 · 0.46–6.45283$5,000very limited data SIR1-365−88%1.88 · 0.39–8.90142$1,000very limited data Zafirlukast−100%2.00 · 0.20–20.3140$5very limited data Obefazimod−101%2.01 · 0.23–17.81305$2,000very limited data Estetrol−102%2.02 · 0.52–7.831171$50very limited data Amiodarone−103%2.03 · 0.53–7.801143$10very limited data P2Et−114%2.14 · 0.20–22.7191$20very limited data BI 764198−117%2.17 · 0.80–5.881129$1,000very limited data Varespladib−120%2.20 · 0.11–44.5118$1,000very limited data Ebselen−130%2.30 · 0.42–12.6256$10very limited data Posaconazole−131%2.31 · 1.78–3.001249$2,000very limited data Sipavibart−132%2.32 · 1.02–5.2722K$2,000intramuscular Emvododstat−132%2.32 · 0.74–7.281187$2,000very limited data Dalcetrapib−134%2.34 · 0.10–56.61208$700very limited data Goflikicept−135%2.35 · 0.93–5.921247$2,000subcutaneous AZD5156−139%2.39 · 0.10–55.8157$2,000intramuscular Ramipril−144%2.44 · 0.10–58.51114$5very limited data Ensifentrine−150%2.50 · 0.11–57.9145$1,000very limited data YKYY017−150%2.50 · 0.10–60.81239$500very limited data Pemivibart−150%2.50 · 0.10–61.11477$5,775intravenous Donidalorsen−151%2.51 · 0.89–7.021103$2,000intravenous/subcutaneous MIB-626−156%2.56 · 0.11–59.0139$1,000very limited data Zavegepant−168%2.68 · 0.34–20.9143$1,100very limited data Tiprelestat−189%2.89 · 0.13–62.3117$2,000intravenous Mefenamic Acid−189%2.89 · 0.13–66.7136$50very limited data Apilimod−199%2.99 · 0.12–72.11141$700very limited data Baloxavir−200%3.00 · 0.14–65.9120$200very limited data Antroquinonol−200%3.00 · 0.12–72.31124$1,000very limited data Zenuzolac−200%3.00 · 0.32–28.3190$500very limited data Ammonium Chloride−202%3.02 · 0.57–16.11120$10very limited data Astodrimer Sodium−205%3.05 · 0.13–74.01197$10very limited data Brequinar−205%3.05 · 0.13–73.41115$700very limited data Hesperidin−209%3.09 · 0.33–29.21211$5very limited data Selinexor−286%3.86 · 0.89–16.91117$3,300very limited data Pegipanermin−290%3.90 · 0.46–33.3177$5,000subcutaneous Efzofitimod−291%3.91 · 0.20–74.7132$2,000very limited data LSALT peptide−407%5.07 · 0.25–101161$2,000intravenous Clevudine−744%8.44 · 0.49–146161$10very limited data
00.511.52+
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← treatment
reduces risktreatment
increases risk →

Key results

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Treatment delay (days since onset) Efficacy Early treatment is more effective 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 -25% 0% 25% 50% 75% 100% c19early.org October 2026 p<0.00000000001 mixed-effects meta-regression, most serious sufficiently powered outcome
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Studies
6,741
Authors
40,266
Research hours
17 million
Treatments
227
Proposed treatments
12,226
Countries
163
All treatmentsAdoption
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c19early.org
October 2026

Media coverage of low-cost COVID‑19 treatments

Media covered only 0.8% of studies showing significantly lower COVID-19 risk

Only 5 positive studies were covered

0.8%

one each: budesonide, cannabidiol, fluvoxamine, HCQ, vitamin D

34 negative studies were covered

4%

HCQ 12, ivermectin 6, lopinavir/ritonavir 4, azithromycin 3, vitamin D 3, fluvoxamine 2, one each: ibuprofen, metformin, vitamin C, zinc

5.4×
Negative bias for low-cost treatments
negative studies were 5.4 times more likely to be covered

Data from Altmetric and PlumX: studies receiving significant mainstream media coverage from 6,000+ studies for 227 treatments, defined as ≥100 news outlets in either Altmetric or PlumX, which cover ~14,000 and ~55,000 outlets respectively. Media coverage was significantly higher for negative studies, p < 0.001 (Fisher's exact test). Studies during the pandemic (until May 5, 2023).

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RdRp Mpro COVID-19 treatments 12,000+ compounds 500+ therapeutic targets c19early.org October 2026 High-profit drugs molnupiravir remdesivir paxlovid
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$0 $500 $1,000+ Efficacy vs. cost for COVID-19 treatment protocols c19early.org October 2026 Angola Colombia Kenya Mozambique Myanmar South Africa Peru Philippines USA Brazil France Italy Canada Pakistan Spain Vietnam Japan Nepal Iran Bangladesh Ethiopia Ghana Germany Mexico South Korea United Kingdom Saudi Arabia Algeria Morocco Yemen Poland Uzbekistan India China Venezuela DR Congo Madagascar Thailand Uganda Egypt Nigeria Taiwan Fiji Zambia Bosnia-Herzegovina Dominican Republic Bolivia Côte d'Ivoire Eritrea Togo Bulgaria Greece Slovakia Iceland New Zealand Trinidad and Tobago Mongolia Czechia Belarus Israel Haiti North Macedonia Hong Kong Qatar Panama Serbia Treatment protocols varied widely. Low-cost treatmentsreduce barriers—especially for early treatment—andprovide complementary/synergistic benefits. More effective More expensive 75% 50% 25% ≤0%
$0 $500 $1,000+ Efficacy vs. cost for COVID-19treatment protocols worldwide c19early.org October 2026 Angola Colombia Kenya Mozambique Myanmar South Africa Peru Philippines USA Brazil France Italy Canada Pakistan Spain Vietnam Japan Iran Bangladesh Ethiopia Ghana Germany Mexico South Korea United Kingdom Saudi Arabia Algeria Morocco Yemen Poland Uzbekistan India China Venezuela DR Congo Madagascar Thailand Uganda Egypt Taiwan Fiji Zambia Dominican Rep. Bolivia Côte d'Ivoire Eritrea Togo Sri Lanka Bulgaria Greece Slovakia New Zealand Trinidad and Tobago Mongolia Czechia Belarus Israel North Macedonia Hong Kong Qatar Panama Serbia Treatment protocols varied widely. Low-cost treatments provide complementaryand synergistic benefits, and reducebarriers—especially for early treatment. More effective More expensive 75% 50% 25% ≤0%
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Inhaled Heparin Cetylpyridinium Chloride Azelastine SA58 Azvudine Chlorpheniramine NaCl Tixagevimab/c.. Sodium Bicarbonate Paxlovid Regdanvimab Vitamin B12 Quercetin Sunlight Phthalocyanine Montelukast Alkalinization Fluvoxamine Molnupiravir Famotidine Budesonide Diet Melatonin Bamlanivimab/e.. Hydrogen Peroxide TMPRSS2 inhibitors Probiotics Casirivimab/i.. Sleep Curcumin Povidone-Iodine Nigella Sativa Tocilizumab H1RAs Acetaminophen ↑risk Naso/oropharyngeal Exercise Vitamin D Antiandrogens Vitamin C PPIs ↑risk Colchicine Ivermectin Metformin Zinc HCQ 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 Pooled outcomes Specific outcome RCT pooled RCT specific Statistically significant ≥10% improvement ≥3 studies c19early.org October 2026 Time when COVID-19 studies showed efficacy
Inhaled Heparin CPC Azelastine SA58 Azvudine Chlorpheniramine NaCl Tixagevimab/c.. Sodium Bicarb.. Paxlovid Regdanvimab Vitamin B12 Quercetin Sunlight Phthalocyanine Montelukast Alkalinization Fluvoxamine Molnupiravir Famotidine Budesonide Diet Melatonin Bamlanivimab/e.. Hydrogen Peroxide TMPRSS2 inhibitors Probiotics Casirivimab/i.. Sleep Curcumin Povidone-Iodine Nigella Sativa Tocilizumab H1RAs Acetaminophen ↑risk Naso/oropharyngeal Exercise Vitamin D Antiandrogens Vitamin C PPIs ↑risk Colchicine Ivermectin Metformin Zinc HCQ 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 Pooled outcomes Specific outcome RCT pooled RCT specific Statistically significant ≥10% improvement ≥3 studies c19early.org October 2026 Time when COVID-19 studies showed efficacy
Timeline for when studies showed efficacy - details and limitations. 0.5% of treatments show efficacy.
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Cost per life saved: treatments for COVID-19

c19early.org
October 2026
TreatmentStudiesBenefitPer life saved$0$2.4M
Melatonin1033%$8
Alkalinization946%$9
Vitamin D7939%$11
Zinc1835%$14
Vitamin C4419%$18
Naso/orophar..288%$20
HCQ25327%$26
Ivermectin5447%$28
Vitamin A446%$30
Colchicine4122%$36
Aspirin688%$45
Curcumin863%$59
Famotidine2017%$94
Metformin7536%$121
Quercetin479%$123
Probiotics1059%$172
Antiandrogens3237%$179
Nigella Sativa557%$187
Nitric Oxide812%$363
TreatmentStudiesBenefitPer life saved$0$2.4M
Fluvoxamine1044%$411
Budesonide1125%$887
Inhaled Heparin350%$1,111
Azvudine3030%$1,248
Favipiravir406%$1,935
Tixagev../c..1132%$86K
Regdanvimab763%$140K
Bamlaniv../e..1451%$343K
Sotrovimab1547%$353K
Casirivimab/im..1119%$452K
Bebtelovimab460%$738K
Paxlovid4321%$881K
Molnupiravir299%$2.4M
Remdesivir66−1%higher
risk
Conv. Plasma56−3%higher
risk
Dexamethas..13−10%higher
risk
Acetaminophen14−24%higher
risk
PPIs20−40%higher
risk
Sipavibart2−132%higher
risk

Cost estimates are the treatment cost times the median NNT (number needed to treat) from studies reporting mortality results with calculable NNT. Mortality estimates are the results of meta-analysis. Costs are in $US and based on estimated costs for widespread distribution by governments. Results reflect conditions in trials to date, these depend on the population treated, treatment delay, and treatment regimen, e.g., vitamin C results are dominated by very late treatment studies with high control mortality. Dexamethasone shows benefit only for severe/critical patients, and higher risk is seen for earlier treatment.

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COVID-19 treatment protocol efficacy
Dr. Pierre Kory
Kory
82—98%
 Dr. Paul Marik
Marik
82—98%
 Dr. Roger Seheult
Seheult
78—98%
 Dr. Mary Talley Bowden
Bowden
69—97%
 Dr. Tess Lawrie
Lawrie
68—95%
 Dr. Brian Procter
Procter
59—94%
 Dr. Peter McCullough
McCullough
67—93%
 Dr. Ramin Oskoui
Oskoui
66—93%
 Dr. Brian Tyson
Tyson
79—93%
 Dr. George Fareed
Fareed
79—93%
 Dr. Zev Zelenko
Zelenko
79—93%
 Dr. Anthony Fauci
Fauci
-26%
Estimated efficacy of early pandemic treatment protocols based on clinical results of the included treatments.
c19early.org
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0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1 1.25 1.5+ PPIs Acetaminophen Cannabidiol Vitamin B9 Remdesivir worse w/longer followup Conv. Plasma Ibuprofen Molnupiravir mutagenic/teratogenic Paxlovid independent trials refused Vitamin C Sotrovimab variant dependent HCQ Zinc Metformin Melatonin Quercetin Vitamin D Exercise Fluvoxamine Sunlight Curcumin PVP-I Alkalinization Diet Regdanvimab Ivermectin Efficacy in COVID-19 studies (pooled effects) Lower risk Increased risk c19early.org October 2026
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0 1000 2000 3000 4000 Age-adjusted cumulativeexcess deaths per million Cumulative excess mortalityduring the COVID-19 pandemic c19early.org October 2026 2020 2021 2022 Omicron becamedominant worldwide Although available, noeffective interventionswere widely adopted Data from Our World in Data, see https://c19early.org/excess.html
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Journals publishing low-cost treatment studies

c19early.org
October 2026

Journals with at least five studies. Impact is the OpenAlex 2-year mean citedness.

  • Each square is one study
  • Impact, higher is better
Journals publishing low-cost treatment studies. Sorted by number of studies.
Treatments
Nutrients
6.45
 19 studies
  • Vitamin D14
  • Diet2
  • Exercise1
  • Probiotics1
  • Vitamin C1
Scientific Reports
5.23
 18 studies
  • Vitamin D4
  • Metformin3
  • Azvudine2
  • Azithromycin1
  • Diet1
  • H1RAs1
  • HCQ1
  • Indomethacin1
  • Nitric Oxide1
  • Phthalocyan..1
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PLOS ONE
3.41
 16 studies
  • Colchicine3
  • HCQ3
  • Metformin3
  • Sleep2
  • AgNP1
  • Aspirin1
  • Exercise1
  • Ibuprofen1
  • Ivermectin1
International Journal of Infectious Diseases
2.58
 15 studies
  • HCQ5
  • Ivermectin5
  • Ammonium Chloride1
  • Favipiravir1
  • Inosine Pran..1
  • Melatonin1
  • Zinc1
Journal of Clinical Medicine
3.91
 13 studies
  • HCQ3
  • Exercise2
  • Antiandrogens1
  • Colchicine1
  • H1RAs1
  • Lactoferrin1
  • Melatonin1
  • NaCl1
  • Sleep1
  • Vitamin D1
Frontiers in Medicine
2.58
 13 studies
  • Antiandrogens2
  • Azvudine2
  • Probiotics2
  • Diet1
  • Ivermectin1
  • Nitazoxanide1
  • Povidone-Iod..1
  • Thermotherapy1
  • UDCA1
  • Zinc1
Cureus
1.16
 13 studies
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  • HCQ2
  • Vitamin C2
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Frontiers in Pharmacology
5.16
 11 studies
  • Azvudine1
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  • HCQ1
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  • UDCA1
  • Vitamin C1
  • Vitamin D1
BMC Infectious Diseases
3.16
 11 studies
  • Ivermectin3
  • HCQ2
  • Azithromycin1
  • Azvudine1
  • Dexamethas..1
  • Diet1
  • Metformin1
  • Vitamin D1
Phytotherapy Research
7.24
 10 studies
  • Nigella Sativa4
  • Curcumin3
  • Andrograph..1
  • Colchicine1
  • Propolis1
Journal of Medical Virology
3.50
 10 studies
  • Aspirin1
  • Azvudine1
  • Chlorhexidine1
  • HCQ1
  • Ivermectin1
  • Melatonin1
  • Metformin1
  • Montelukast1
  • N-acetylcys..1
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Journal of Infection
7.04
 9 studies
  • Azvudine2
  • Aspirin1
  • Favipiravir1
  • HCQ1
  • Ivermectin1
  • N-acetylcys..1
  • Nitric Oxide1
  • Vitamin D1
Frontiers in Nutrition
4.45
 8 studies
  • Diet5
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  • Curcumin1
  • Vitamin D1
International Journal of Antimicrobial Agents
4.20
 8 studies
  • HCQ4
  • Azithromycin1
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  • Zinc1
BMJ Open
2.62
 8 studies
  • Exercise5
  • Metformin2
  • Zinc1
JAMA Network Open
9.91
 7 studies
  • Colchicine2
  • Aspirin1
  • Dexamethas..1
  • Exercise1
  • Fluvoxamine1
  • Sleep1
eClinicalMedicine
12.38
 5 studies
  • Azvudine1
  • Camostat1
  • Fluvoxamine1
  • Ivermectin1
  • Nitazoxanide1
Biomedicines
5.28
 5 studies
  • Vitamin D2
  • HCQ1
  • Metformin1
  • Probiotics1
Journal of Infection and Public Health
3.92
 5 studies
  • Azvudine1
  • Colchicine1
  • Exercise1
  • Favipiravir1
  • Fluvoxamine1
International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health
3.78
 5 studies
  • Vitamin D2
  • Exercise1
  • Lactoferrin1
  • Vitamin C1
Frontiers in Public Health
3.59
 5 studies
  • Alkalinization1
  • Exercise1
  • HCQ1
  • Ivermectin1
  • Vitamin D1
Journal of Endocrinological Investigation
3.53
 5 studies
  • Vitamin D4
  • Antiandrogens1
Infection and Drug Resistance
2.85
 5 studies
  • Azvudine1
  • Diet1
  • Ivermectin1
  • Sleep1
  • Vitamin C1
Open Forum Infectious Diseases
1.21
 5 studies
  • HCQ3
  • Favipiravir1
  • Fluvoxamine1
Expand

Physician-reported outcomes: early vs. late treatment of COVID-19

c19early.org
October 2026

0.1% mortality with early treatment vs. 6.2% with late treatment (49× lower)

Early treatment0.1%average mortality2.2% hospitalized
Late treatment6.2%average mortality39% hospitalized
PhysicianCountryPatientsHospitalizedDied
Early treatmenttreatment on presentation
Dr. Roberto Alfonso AccinelliPeru1,26570.6%0/360 deaths for treatment within 3 days
Dr. Mohammed Tarek AlamBangladesh10000%patients up to 84 years old
Dr. Oluwagbenga AlongeNigeria31000%
Dr. Raja BhattacharyaIndia14821.4%up to 88yo, 81% comorbidities
Dr. Flavio CadegianiBrazil3,45040.1%00%
Dr. Alessandro CapucciItaly350164.6%
Dr. Shankara ChettySouth Africa8,00000%
Dr. Deborah ChisholmUSA10000%
Dr. Ryan ColeUSA40000%00%
Dr. Marco CosentinoItaly392256.4%10.3%earlier treatment results were better
Dr. Jeff DavisUSA6,00000%
Dr. DhanajayIndia50000%
Dr. Bryan Tyson & Dr. George FareedUSA20,00060.0%40.0%
Dr. Raphael FurtadoBrazil17010.6%00%
Rabbi Yehoshua GerziIsrael86010.1%00%
Dr. Heather GesslingUSA1,50010.1%
Dr. Ellen GuimarãesBrazil50081.6%20.4%
Dr. Syed HaiderUSA4,00050.1%00%
Dr. Mark HancockUSA2400%
Dr. Sabine HazanUSA1,00000%
Dr. Mollie JamesUSA3,500401.1%10.0%
Dr. Roberta LacerdaBrazil55081.5%20.4%
Dr. Katarina LindleyUSA10055.0%00%
Dr. Ben MarbleUSA150,00040.0%
Dr. Edimilson MigowskiBrazil2,00070.3%20.1%
Dr. Abdulrahman MohanaSaudi Arabia2,73300%
Dr. Carlos NigroBrazil5,000450.9%230.5%
Dr. Benoit OchsLuxembourg80000%
Dr. OrtoreItaly24031.2%00%
Dr. Valerio PascuaHonduras415266.3%10.2%one patient already on oxygen died
Dr. Sebastian PopRomania30000%
Dr. Brian ProctorUSA869202.3%20.2%
Dr. Anastacio QueirozBrazil70000%
Dr. Didier RaoultFrance8,3152142.6%50.1%
Dr. Karin RiedTurkey23710.4%up to 99yo, 73% comorbidities
Dr. Roman RozencwaigCanada8000%patients up to 86 years old
Dr. Vipul ShahIndia8,00050.1%
Dr. Silvestre SobrinhoBrazil116108.6%00%
Dr. UnknownBrazil957161.7%20.2%
Dr. Vladimir ZelenkoUSA2,200120.5%20.1%
Early treatment236,1812.2%0.1%
Late treatmentno treatment until hospitalization
Dr. Jake Scott (**)USA1,00010010%
Dr. David Uip (*)Brazil2,20085039%542.5%
Late treatment3,20039%6.2%

Early-treatment physicians treated patients on presentation, while late-treatment physicians followed official guidance with treatment only on hospitalization. Groups are not randomized. Results are subject to selection and ascertainment bias and accurate analysis requires details of the patient populations and followup, however the results are consistent across many teams, and consistent with the extensive controlled clinical evidence showing a significant reduction in risk with many early treatments, and complementary/synergistic benefits with combined treatment.

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1 of 14
Treatment results

Random-effects meta-analysis by stage and outcome.

0.5% of treatments show efficacy. Pooled results depend on which stages and outcomes were studied.
2 of 14
What works

Summary of clinical evidence for COVID-19 treatment.

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3 of 14
Early treatment is critical

As with other viral infections, earlier treatment is more effective.

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4 of 14
Evidence base

Studies, treatments, and approvals included in the analysis.
5 of 14
Mainstream media bias

Most low-cost treatment studies were not covered. Coverage favored negative results for low-cost treatments and positive results for high-profit treatments.

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6 of 14
500+ therapeutic targets

COVID-19 involves the interplay of 500+ viral and host proteins and factors, providing many therapeutic targets.

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7 of 14
Country protocols varied widely

Official treatment protocols varied widely around the world.

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8 of 14
Efficacy was known early

When clinical studies showed that treatments were effective.

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9 of 14
Cost per life saved

0.5% of treatments show efficacy. The cost per life saved varies widely for effective treatments.

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10 of 14
Treatment protocols in practice

Estimated efficacy of early treatment protocols used by physicians.

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11 of 14
Efficacy overview

Overview of all studies for selected treatments.

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12 of 14
Effective interventions not adopted

No effective intervention was widely adopted. Excess mortality declined only after Omicron became dominant.

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13 of 14
Journal bias

Journals publishing positive results for low-cost treatments.

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14 of 14
Physician-reported outcomes

Early combined treatment protocols had lower hospitalization and mortality than late-treatment guidelines.

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