COVID-19 treatment: real-time analysis of 6,595 studies

Summary of clinical evidence for COVID-19 treatment:
As with other viral infections, early treatment is more effective:
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Treatments show a wide range of efficacy and cost:
$0 $1,000 $2,000+ -25+% 0% 25% 50% Treatment cost (US$) Efficacy vs. cost for COVID-19 treatments +56 more high-profit drugs PPIs -46% BMS mAbs -36% >$2,000 Darunavir -34% Acetaminophen -28% Cenicriviroc -28% >$2,000 Lufotrelvir >$2,000 Dexamethasone Losartan Sargramostim >$2,000 Cannabidiol Lopinavir/ritonavir Ravulizumab >$2,000 Remdesivir $3,120 Conv. Plasma $5,000 Sarilumab >$2,000 Ibuprofen Masks Molnupiravir mutagenic/teratogenic Aspirin Tocilizumab Favipiravir Paxlovid Ratutrelvir Famotidine Vitamin C Sotrovimab $2,100 Colchicine TMPRSS2 i.. NAC Amubarvimab/r.. Vilobelimab $6,350 Ensitrelvir Azvudine Budesonide Probiotics HCQ Zinc Antiandro.. Sleep Metformin Vitamin A Melatonin Tixagevimab/c.. Bebtelovimab Nitric Oxide Quercetin H1RAs CPC Vitamin D H. Peroxide Exercise Sunlight Fluvox. Curcumin N. Sativa NaHCO₃ Casirivimab/i.. $2,100 Bamlanivimab/e.. Ensovibep >$2,000 PVP-I pH+ Diet Regdanvimab $2,100 Thermotherapy Ivermectin Lifestyle / free No prescription Prescription required High-cost Lowerrisk Higherrisk c19early.org April 2026 USA official early treatments COVID-19 involves the interplay of 500+ host/viral proteins/factors, modulated by many treatments. 0.5% of 11,000+proposed treatments show efficacy with ≥3 studies.Protocols combine treatments, none are 100% effective.c19early analyzes over 6,500 studies for 218 treatments.
$0 $1,000 $2,000+ -20+% 0% 25% 50% Treatment cost (US$) Efficacy vs. cost for COVID-19 treatments +56 more high-profit drugs PPIs -46% BMS mAbs -36% Acetaminophen -28% Cenicriviroc -28% Lufotrelvir -22% Dexame.. Losartan Sargramostim CBD Lopinav.. Vit. B9 Ravulizumab Remdesivir C. Plasma Sarilumab Ibuprofen Masks Molnupiravir mutagenic/teratogenic Aspirin Tocilizumab Favipir.. Paxlovid Ratutrelvir Famotidine Vitamin C Sotrovimab Colchicine TMPRSS2 i.. NAC Amubarvimab/r.. Vilobelimab Azvudine Budesonide Probiotics HCQ Zinc Antiandro.. Sleep Metformin Vitamin A Melatonin Tixagev.. Bebtelovimab Nitric Oxide Quercetin H1RAs CPC Vitamin D H. Peroxide Exercise Sunlight Fluvox. Curcumin N. Sativa NaHCO₃ Casirivim.. Bamlan.. Ensovibep PVP-I pH+ Diet Regdanvimab Thermotherapy Ivermectin Lifestyle / free No prescription Prescription required High-cost Lowerrisk Higherrisk c19early.org April 2026 USA official early treatments COVID-19 involves the interplay of500+ host/viral proteins/factors.0.5% of 11,000+ treatments showefficacy. Protocols combinetreatments. c19early analyzes6,500+ studies for 218 treatments.
Mainstream media suppressed low-cost treatments and favored high-profit treatments:
c19early.org April 2026 Media censorship for COVID-19 low-cost treatments Only 18 positive studies were covered: fluvoxamine (3), HCQ (2), antiandrogens (2), budesonide (2), vitamin D, melatonin, probiotics, ivermectin, cannabidiol, famotidinecurcumin, resveratrol, UDCA 53 negative studies were covered: HCQ (15), ivermectin (7), lopinavir/r.. (5), vitamin D (5), azithromycin (4), zinc (2), vitamin C (2), metformin (2), fluvoxamine (2)indomethacin, colchicine, selenium, probiotics, vitamin A, ibuprofen, antiandrogens, vitamin B9, cannabidiol 98% of studies showing significantly lower risk were censored: Media selectively covered negative studies for low-cost treatments Data from Altmetric: studies receiving significant mainstream media coverage from 6,000+ studies for 218 treatments 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024
c19early.org April 2026 C19 media censorship For low-cost treatments media covered only 18 positive studies: fluvoxamine (3), HCQ (2), antiandrogens (2), budesonide (2), vitamin D, ... 53 negative studies were covered: HCQ (15), ivermectin (7), lopinavir/r.. (5), vitamin D (5), azithromycin (4), ... 98% of positive studies were censored: Media censored positive studies Data from Altmetric: studies receiving significant media coverage from 6,000+ studies for 218 treatments 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024
Treatment protocols varied widely around the world:
Clinical evidence timeline:
Inhaled Heparin Cetylpyridinium Chloride Azelastine SA58 Azvudine Chlorpheniramine NaCl Tixagevimab/c.. Sodium Bicarbonate Paxlovid Regdanvimab Vitamin B12 Quercetin Sunlight Phthalocyanine Montelukast Alkalinization Fluvoxamine Molnupiravir Famotidine Budesonide Diet Melatonin Bamlanivimab/e.. Hydrogen Peroxide TMPRSS2 inhibitors Probiotics Casirivimab/i.. Sleep Curcumin Povidone-Iodine Nigella Sativa Tocilizumab H1RAs Acetaminophen ↑risk Naso/oropharyngeal Exercise Vitamin D Antiandrogens Vitamin C PPIs ↑risk Colchicine Ivermectin Metformin Zinc HCQ 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 Pooled outcomes Specific outcome RCT pooled RCT specific Statistically significant ≥10% improvement ≥3 studies c19early.org April 2026 Time when COVID-19 studies showed efficacy
Inhaled Heparin CPC Azelastine SA58 Azvudine Chlorpheniramine NaCl Tixagevimab/c.. Sodium Bicarb.. Paxlovid Regdanvimab Vitamin B12 Quercetin Sunlight Phthalocyanine Montelukast Alkalinization Fluvoxamine Molnupiravir Famotidine Budesonide Diet Melatonin Bamlanivimab/e.. Hydrogen Peroxide TMPRSS2 inhibitors Probiotics Casirivimab/i.. Sleep Curcumin Povidone-Iodine Nigella Sativa Tocilizumab H1RAs Acetaminophen ↑risk Naso/oropharyngeal Exercise Vitamin D Antiandrogens Vitamin C PPIs ↑risk Colchicine Ivermectin Metformin Zinc HCQ 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 Pooled outcomes Specific outcome RCT pooled RCT specific Statistically significant ≥10% improvement ≥3 studies c19early.org April 2026 Time when COVID-19 studies showed efficacy
Timeline for when studies showed efficacy - details and limitations. 0.5% of treatments show efficacy.
Treatment cost per life saved:
April 2026
c19early.org
Cost per life saved from NNT in
studies to date
Melatonin
10
33%
  $8
Alkalinization
9
46%
  $9
Vitamin D
79
39%
  $11
Zinc
18
35%
  $14
Vitamin C
44
19%
  $18
Naso/orophar..
2
88%
  $20
HCQ
252
27%
  $26
Ivermectin
53
47%
  $26
Vitamin A
4
46%
  $30
Colchicine
41
22%
  $36
Aspirin
68
8%
  $45
Curcumin
8
63%
  $59
Famotidine
20
17%
  $94
Metformin
74
36%
  $109
Quercetin
4
79%
  $123
Probiotics
10
59%
  $172
Antiandrogens
32
37%
  $179
Nigella Sativa
5
57%
  $187
Nitric Oxide
8
12%
  $363
Fluvoxamine
10
44%
  $411
Budesonide
11
25%
  $887
Inhaled Heparin
3
50%
  $1,111
Azvudine
30
30%
  $1,248
Favipiravir
40
6%
  $1,935
Tixagev../c..
10
40%
  $74,506
Regdanvimab
7
63%
  $139,860
Bamlaniv../e..
14
51%
  $343,149
Sotrovimab
15
47%
  $352,800
Casirivimab/..
11
19%
  $452,469
Bebtelovimab
4
60%
  $737,601
Paxlovid
43
21%
  $881,260
Molnupiravir
29
9%
  $2,400,867
Remdesivir
66
-1%
N/A
Conv. Plasma
56
-3%
N/A
Acetaminophen
14
-24%
N/A
PPIs
20
-40%
N/A
Treatment cost times median NNT - details and limitations. 0.5% of treatments show efficacy.
All clinical results for selected treatments. 0.5% of treatments show efficacy.
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No effective intervention was widely adopted; excess mortality declined only after Omicron.
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 Age-adjusted cumulativeexcess deaths per million Cumulative excess mortalityduring the COVID-19 pandemic c19early.org April 2026 2020 2021 2022 Omicron becamedominant worldwide Although available, noeffective interventionswere widely adopted Data from Our World in Data, see https://c19early.org/excess.html
Top journals with less bias against low-cost treatments:
Top journals that accept positive studies for low cost treatments: Nutrients, Scientific Reports, PLOS ONE, International Journal of Infectious Diseases, Frontiers in Medicine, Cureus, more...
0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1 1.25 1.5 1.75 2+ Iota-carragee.. 80% [22-95%] 1 $1 394 very limited data Cost Studies Patients Improvement Relative Risk Proxalutamide 78% [70-83%] 4 $500 1K limited data Indomethacin 74% [-20-94%] 4 $5 605 limited data Chlorhexidine 70% [58-79%] 5 $1 675 limited data SA58 67% [17-87%] 3 $700 4K limited data Olgotrelvir 67% [-718-99%] 1 $1,000 1K very limited data Mebendazole 62% [12-83%] 3 $1 411 very limited data Ivermectin 60% [52-67%] 106 $1 220K Chlorphenira.. 56% [46-64%] 3 $5 806 very limited data Thermotherapy 56% [9-78%] 4 $0 217 very limited data Regdanvimab 55% [30-72%] 12 $2,100 7K Diet 51% [42-58%] 30 $0 690K HOCl 50% [-32-81%] 3 $1 341 very limited data Inhaled Heparin 50% [17-70%] 3 $100 493 limited data Alkalinization 49% [36-59%] 14 $1 6K HH-120 49% [-60-84%] 2 $500 345 very limited data Povidone-Iod.. 48% [35-58%] 21 $1 2K Ensovibep 47% [-108-87%] 2 $2,100 885 limited data Bamlaniv../e.. 46% [24-61%] 22 $1,250 30K variant dependent Casirivimab/i.. 45% [26-59%] 34 $2,100 50K variant dependent Resveratrol 44% [-4-70%] 3 $1 360 limited data Adintrevimab 43% [-169-88%] 2 $2,100 2K intramuscular Bromhexine 43% [-5-69%] 7 $5 875 very limited data Sodium Bicar.. 43% [23-58%] 6 $1 1K Nigella Sativa 43% [24-57%] 14 $5 3K Propolis 41% [-13-69%] 3 $1 410 very limited data Curcumin 41% [30-50%] 28 $5 15K Sunlight 39% [26-50%] 6 $0 19K Fluvoxamine 39% [22-53%] 21 $4 30K Montelukast 39% [14-56%] 9 $2 2K limited data Exercise 39% [33-44%] 68 $0 1M Hydrogen Per.. 39% [6-60%] 8 $1 847 very limited data Azelastine 39% [0-62%] 4 $5 760 very limited data Vitamin D 38% [33-43%] 137 $1 190K Cetylpyridin.. 38% [15-55%] 4 $1 157 limited data Phthalocyan.. 38% [20-51%] 4 $5 5K Xiannuoxin 38% [-46-73%] 2 $106 1K very limited data Epigallocatech.. 38% [10-50%] 1 $5 114 very limited data H1RAs 37% [22-50%] 17 $5 70K Sentinox 37% [-238-88%] 1 $25 39 very limited data Quercetin 35% [15-51%] 9 $5 841 Nitric Oxide 35% [9-54%] 14 $11 2K Nitazoxanide 35% [-8-61%] 14 $4 3K Selenium 34% [-40-69%] 4 $1 21K Bebtelovimab 34% [-24-65%] 6 $1,200 13K intravenous Tixagev../c.. 34% [11-51%] 19 $855 30K variant dependent Artemisinin 34% [11-51%] 3 $1 217 very limited data Melatonin 34% [24-42%] 18 $1 14K Vitamin A 33% [12-49%] 14 $2 22K Bemnifosbuvir 32% [-74-73%] 4 $500 2K very limited data Metformin 32% [28-35%] 111 $10 360K Sleep 31% [23-39%] 16 $0 420K Spironolactone 31% [15-44%] 12 $5 28K Antiandrogens 30% [21-38%] 49 $5 120K Nafamostat 30% [10-46%] 7 $1 16K very limited data Vitamin B12 30% [5-48%] 4 $1 11K Zinc 30% [20-38%] 41 $1 50K Inosine Pran.. 29% [13-42%] 2 $50 414 limited data Hydroxychlor.. 28% [25-31%] 423 $1 590K Niclosamide 28% [9-43%] 7 $50 2K very limited data Probiotics 27% [18-36%] 29 $5 19K Ibuzatrelvir 27% [15-38%] 1 $1,390 126 very limited data Andrograph.. 27% [-8-50%] 7 $5 1K Budesonide 27% [16-35%] 14 $4 27K Azvudine 27% [19-33%] 42 $25 50K Ensitrelvir 26% [1-45%] 9 $500 6K Vilobelimab 26% [-4-48%] 1 $6,350 368 intravenous Amubarv../r.. 25% [-70-66%] 4 $1,380 1K intravenous Lactoferrin 24% [-24-53%] 8 $5 1K N-acetylcys.. 23% [14-32%] 25 $1 26K NaCl 23% [9-36%] 9 $0 1K TMPRSS2 inh. 23% [10-33%] 29 $5 19K Colchicine 23% [14-31%] 54 $1 30K Sotrovimab 22% [10-32%] 29 $2,100 50K variant dependent Vitamin C 21% [14-27%] 72 $1 80K Leritrelvir 21% [3-35%] 2 $88 1K very limited data UDCA 18% [-3-36%] 22 $15 40K Camostat 18% [-2-34%] 16 $1 2K SNS812 17% [4-29%] 1 $1,000 90 very limited data Famotidine 16% [7-24%] 29 $5 110K Ratutrelvir 14% [3-24%] 1 $1,500 50 very limited data Vitamin K 14% [0-25%] 2 $1 7K very limited data Atilotrelvir 13% [1-23%] 1 $65 1K very limited data Paxlovid 12% [8-16%] 88 $1,390 170K independent trials refused Deuremidevir 11% [-1-21%] 2 $112 1K very limited data Favipiravir 11% [3-18%] 74 $20 30K worse w/longer followup Tocilizumab 8% [-6-21%] 47 $2,000 21K Aspirin 8% [2-13%] 79 $1 180K Molnupiravir 5% [-3-12%] 54 $707 180K mutagenic/teratogenic Empagliflozin 4% [-11-16%] 1 $300 4K very limited data Masks 2% [-25-24%] 4 $5 350K Ibuprofen 0% [-9-9%] 13 $1 50K Acebilustat 0% [-1462-94%] 1 $2,000 120 very limited data Levilimab 0% [-289-74%] 1 $2,000 206 subcutaneous Vidofludimus 0% [-597-86%] 1 $2,000 220 very limited data Verapamil 0% [-379-79%] 1 $5 144 very limited data iC1e/K 0% [-1287-93%] 1 $10,000 20 intravenous Adalimumab 0% [-268-73%] 1 $1,000 68 very limited data Zunsemetinib 0% [-1287-93%] 1 $1,000 20 very limited data Brilacidin 0% [-281-74%] 1 $2,000 120 intravenous Sarilumab -0% [-21-17%] 11 $2,000 2K intravenous/subcutaneous Pomotrelvir -1% [-104-50%] 1 $1,390 230 very limited data Conv. Plasma -2% [-6-2%] 58 $5,000 30K intravenous Vadadustat -3% [-89-44%] 1 $596 448 very limited data Apremilast -3% [-42-25%] 2 $2,000 594 limited data DFV890 -3% [-159-59%] 1 $2,000 142 very limited data Dimethyl fum.. -3% [-48-29%] 1 $20 713 very limited data rhu-pGSN -3% [-587-84%] 1 $5,000 61 intravenous Ropeginterfero.. -3% [-1010-90%] 1 $10,000 132 subcutaneous Remdesivir -4% [-13-4%] 81 $3,120 200K worse w/longer followup Aviptadil -5% [-74-37%] 3 $1,000 775 limited data Interleukin-2 -5% [-36-19%] 2 $2,100 94 intravenous Nicotine -5% [-50-26%] 1 $20 213 very limited data Ravulizumab -5% [-45-24%] 2 $2,000 481 intravenous HuMax-IL8 -6% [-147-54%] 1 $10,000 43 intravenous AER002 -6% [-18-4%] 1 $2,000 36 intravenous Lanadelumab -7% [-135-52%] 1 $10,000 55 very limited data Vitamin B9 -8% [-41-18%] 12 $1 50K CK0802 -8% [-257-67%] 1 $5,000 30 intravenous Plasma-activ.. -9% [-234-64%] 1 $100 23 very limited data Ibrutinib -9% [-1541-93%] 1 $9,000 46 very limited data FX06 -10% [-156-53%] 1 $10,000 49 intravenous Diacerein -10% [-111-43%] 1 $10 14 very limited data Razuprotafib -10% [-116-44%] 2 $2,000 134 subcutaneous Gimsilumab -10% [-80-30%] 1 $2,000 225 intravenous Iodine -10% [-121-45%] 1 $1 141 very limited data Lopinavir/r.. -11% [-28-4%] 17 $50 15K Gabapentin -11% [-32-6%] 1 $10 129 very limited data Dornase alfa -12% [-87-34%] 3 $2,000 242 very limited data Cannabidiol -13% [-81-30%] 11 $25 18K Sargramostim -13% [-85-31%] 4 $2,000 870 very limited data Conestat alfa -14% [-1439-92%] 2 $79,000 121 intravenous Brexanolone -14% [-129-43%] 1 $34,000 28 very limited data Losartan -15% [-84-29%] 6 $5 1K limited data Peg.. Lambda -15% [-107-36%] 5 $500 2K subcutaneous Efmarodocokin.. -15% [-111-41%] 1 $2,000 266 intravenous Pentoxifylline -15% [-363-71%] 3 $50 178 very limited data Dolutegravir -15% [-71-22%] 2 $130 1K intravenous Plitidepsin -16% [-356-71%] 2 $2,000 163 intravenous MAS825 -16% [-83-26%] 1 $5,000 138 intravenous Trimodulin -17% [-116-37%] 1 $2,000 166 intravenous Dexamethas.. -17% [-40-2%] 12 $1 27K Losmapimod -18% [-76-21%] 1 $2,000 48 very limited data Amantadine -19% [-167-47%] 3 $10 527 very limited data Silymarin -20% [-302-64%] 1 $5 50 very limited data Metronidazole -20% [-677-81%] 1 $5 44 very limited data Lufotrelvir -22% [-198-50%] 1 $2,000 58 intravenous Tenecteplase -25% [-946-85%] 1 $8,000 13 intravenous Pacritinib -28% [-210-47%] 1 $2,000 200 very limited data Cenicriviroc -28% [-66-1%] 3 $2,000 1K limited data Acetaminoph.. -28% [-41--17%] 27 $1 540K Crizanlizumab -29% [-103-18%] 2 $2,500 463 intravenous Voxvoganan -29% [-728-80%] 1 $200 23 very limited data Cyproheptadine -30% [-133-27%] 2 $10 136 very limited data Astegolimab -31% [-133-31%] 1 $2,000 264 intravenous Alunacedase alfa -31% [-238-49%] 1 $2,000 178 intravenous Belnacasan -34% [-129-22%] 1 $1,000 31 very limited data Darunavir -34% [-120-18%] 5 $40 2K very limited data Tradipitant -36% [-161-30%] 1 $1,200 145 very limited data BMS mAbs -36% [-492-69%] 1 $2,100 210 subcutaneous Domperidone -36% [-123-17%] 1 $10 173 very limited data Zansecimab -36% [-263-49%] 1 $2,000 95 intravenous Atovaquone -39% [-526-69%] 1 $50 60 very limited data GB0139 -40% [-449-64%] 1 $2,000 41 very limited data Brensocatib -41% [-88--6%] 1 $2,000 404 very limited data Danicopan -43% [-168-24%] 1 $2,000 201 very limited data Fenretinide -44% [-193-29%] 1 $700 351 very limited data XAV-19 -45% [-221-35%] 2 $2,000 667 intravenous PPIs -46% [-67--28%] 40 $5 220K Beta-glucans -49% [-823-76%] 2 $25 64 very limited data Olokizumab -50% [-309-45%] 1 $2,000 248 subcutaneous Ixekizumab -50% [-681-71%] 1 $5,000 32 subcutaneous Edaravone -50% [-699-72%] 1 $5,000 38 intravenous TRV027 -54% [-202-22%] 2 $2,000 318 intravenous Glenzocimab -60% [-236-24%] 1 $2,000 62 intravenous Asapiprant -63% [-242-22%] 1 $1,000 194 very limited data Siltuximab -64% [-252-23%] 1 $2,000 149 intravenous rNAPc2 -65% [-304-32%] 1 $3,000 156 subcutaneous Avdoralimab -68% [-226-13%] 1 $2,000 207 intravenous Cytokine Adsor.. -72% [-545-54%] 2 $5,000 83 very limited data SIR1-365 -88% [-790-61%] 1 $1,000 42 very limited data Zafirlukast -100% [-1933-80%] 1 $5 40 very limited data Obefazimod -101% [-1675-77%] 1 $2,000 305 very limited data Estetrol -102% [-683-48%] 1 $50 171 very limited data Amiodarone -103% [-680-47%] 1 $10 143 very limited data P2Et -114% [-2174-80%] 1 $20 91 very limited data BI 764198 -117% [-488-20%] 1 $1,000 129 very limited data Varespladib -120% [-4351-89%] 1 $1,000 18 very limited data Posaconazole -131% [-200--78%] 1 $2,000 249 very limited data Emvododstat -132% [-628-26%] 1 $2,000 187 very limited data Dalcetrapib -134% [-5564-90%] 1 $700 208 very limited data Goflikicept -135% [-492-7%] 1 $2,000 247 subcutaneous Ramipril -144% [-5754-90%] 1 $5 114 very limited data Ensifentrine -150% [-5695-89%] 1 $1,000 45 very limited data YKYY017 -150% [-5977-90%] 1 $500 239 very limited data Pemivibart -150% [-6014-90%] 1 $5,775 477 intravenous Donidalorsen -151% [-602-11%] 1 $2,000 103 intravenous/subcutaneous MIB-626 -156% [-5797-89%] 1 $1,000 39 very limited data Zavegepant -168% [-1988-66%] 1 $1,100 43 very limited data Mefenamic Acid -189% [-6566-87%] 1 $50 36 very limited data Apilimod -199% [-7108-88%] 1 $700 141 very limited data Baloxavir -200% [-6491-86%] 1 $200 20 very limited data Antroquinonol -200% [-7125-88%] 1 $1,000 124 very limited data Zenuzolac -200% [-2732-68%] 1 $500 90 very limited data Ammonium Ch.. -202% [-1506-43%] 1 $10 120 very limited data Astodrimer So.. -205% [-7302-87%] 1 $10 197 very limited data Brequinar -205% [-7243-87%] 1 $700 115 very limited data Hesperidin -209% [-2820-67%] 1 $5 211 very limited data Sipavibart -241% [-1161-8%] 2 $2,000 2K intramuscular Selinexor -286% [-1586-11%] 1 $3,300 117 very limited data Pegipanermin -290% [-3230-54%] 1 $5,000 77 subcutaneous Efzofitimod -291% [-7370-80%] 1 $2,000 32 very limited data LSALT peptide -407% [-10036-75%] 1 $2,000 61 intravenous Clevudine -744% [-14450-51%] 1 $10 61 very limited data All studies (pooled effects, all stages) c19early.org April 2026 Favors treatment Favors control
0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1 1.25 1.5 1.75 2+ Iota-carragee.. 80% 1 very limited data Studies, Improvement Relative Risk Proxalutamide 78% 4 limited data Indomethacin 74% 4 limited data Chlorhexidine 70% 5 limited data SA58 67% 3 limited data Olgotrelvir 67% 1 very limited data Mebendazole 62% 3 very limited data Ivermectin 60% 106 Chlorphenira.. 56% 3 very limited data Thermotherapy 56% 4 very limited data Regdanvimab 55% 12 Diet 51% 30 HOCl 50% 3 very limited data Inhaled Heparin 50% 3 limited data Alkalinization 49% 14 HH-120 49% 2 very limited data Povidone-Iod.. 48% 21 Ensovibep 47% 2 limited data Bamlaniv../e.. 46% 22 variant dependent Casirivimab/.. 45% 34 variant dependent Resveratrol 44% 3 limited data Adintrevimab 43% 2 intramuscular Bromhexine 43% 7 very limited data Sodium Bicar.. 43% 6 Nigella Sativa 43% 14 Propolis 41% 3 very limited data Curcumin 41% 28 Sunlight 39% 6 Fluvoxamine 39% 21 Montelukast 39% 9 limited data Exercise 39% 68 Hydrogen Per.. 39% 8 very limited data Azelastine 39% 4 very limited data Vitamin D 38% 137 Cetylpyridin.. 38% 4 limited data Phthalocyan.. 38% 4 Xiannuoxin 38% 2 very limited data Epigallocatec.. 38% 1 very limited data H1RAs 37% 17 Sentinox 37% 1 very limited data Quercetin 35% 9 Nitric Oxide 35% 14 Nitazoxanide 35% 14 Selenium 34% 4 Bebtelovimab 34% 6 intravenous Tixagev../c.. 34% 19 variant dependent Artemisinin 34% 3 very limited data Melatonin 34% 18 Vitamin A 33% 14 Bemnifosbuvir 32% 4 very limited data Metformin 32% 111 Sleep 31% 16 Spironolactone 31% 12 Antiandrogens 30% 49 Nafamostat 30% 7 very limited data Vitamin B12 30% 4 Zinc 30% 41 Inosine Pran.. 29% 2 limited data Hydroxychlor.. 28% 423 Niclosamide 28% 7 very limited data Probiotics 27% 29 Ibuzatrelvir 27% 1 very limited data Andrograph.. 27% 7 Budesonide 27% 14 Azvudine 27% 42 Ensitrelvir 26% 9 Vilobelimab 26% 1 intravenous Amubarv../r.. 25% 4 intravenous Lactoferrin 24% 8 N-acetylcys.. 23% 25 NaCl 23% 9 TMPRSS2 inh. 23% 29 Colchicine 23% 54 Sotrovimab 22% 29 variant dependent Vitamin C 21% 72 Leritrelvir 21% 2 very limited data UDCA 18% 22 Camostat 18% 16 SNS812 17% 1 very limited data Famotidine 16% 29 Ratutrelvir 14% 1 very limited data Vitamin K 14% 2 very limited data Atilotrelvir 13% 1 very limited data Paxlovid 12% 88 independent trials refused Deuremidevir 11% 2 very limited data Favipiravir 11% 74 worse w/longer followup Tocilizumab 8% 47 Aspirin 8% 79 Molnupiravir 5% 54 mutagenic/teratogenic Empagliflozin 4% 1 very limited data Masks 2% 4 Ibuprofen 0% 13 Acebilustat 0% 1 very limited data Levilimab 0% 1 subcutaneous Vidofludimus 0% 1 very limited data Verapamil 0% 1 very limited data iC1e/K 0% 1 intravenous Adalimumab 0% 1 very limited data Zunsemetinib 0% 1 very limited data Brilacidin 0% 1 intravenous Sarilumab -0% 11 intravenous/subcutaneous Pomotrelvir -1% 1 very limited data Conv. Plasma -2% 58 intravenous Vadadustat -3% 1 very limited data Apremilast -3% 2 limited data DFV890 -3% 1 very limited data Dimethyl fu.. -3% 1 very limited data rhu-pGSN -3% 1 intravenous Ropeginterfer.. -3% 1 subcutaneous Remdesivir -4% 81 worse w/longer followup Aviptadil -5% 3 limited data Interleukin-2 -5% 2 intravenous Nicotine -5% 1 very limited data Ravulizumab -5% 2 intravenous HuMax-IL8 -6% 1 intravenous AER002 -6% 1 intravenous Lanadelumab -7% 1 very limited data Vitamin B9 -8% 12 CK0802 -8% 1 intravenous Plasma-activ.. -9% 1 very limited data Ibrutinib -9% 1 very limited data FX06 -10% 1 intravenous Diacerein -10% 1 very limited data Razuprotafib -10% 2 subcutaneous Gimsilumab -10% 1 intravenous Iodine -10% 1 very limited data Lopinavir/r.. -11% 17 Gabapentin -11% 1 very limited data Dornase alfa -12% 3 very limited data Cannabidiol -13% 11 Sargramostim -13% 4 very limited data Conestat alfa -14% 2 intravenous Brexanolone -14% 1 very limited data Losartan -15% 6 limited data Peg.. Lambda -15% 5 subcutaneous Efmarodocoki.. -15% 1 intravenous Pentoxifylline -15% 3 very limited data Dolutegravir -15% 2 intravenous Plitidepsin -16% 2 intravenous MAS825 -16% 1 intravenous Trimodulin -17% 1 intravenous Dexamethas.. -17% 12 Losmapimod -18% 1 very limited data Amantadine -19% 3 very limited data Silymarin -20% 1 very limited data Metronidazole -20% 1 very limited data Lufotrelvir -22% 1 intravenous Tenecteplase -25% 1 intravenous Pacritinib -28% 1 very limited data Cenicriviroc -28% 3 limited data Acetaminoph.. -28% 27 Crizanlizumab -29% 2 intravenous Voxvoganan -29% 1 very limited data Cyproheptadine -30% 2 very limited data Astegolimab -31% 1 intravenous Alunacedase a.. -31% 1 intravenous Belnacasan -34% 1 very limited data Darunavir -34% 5 very limited data Tradipitant -36% 1 very limited data BMS mAbs -36% 1 subcutaneous Domperidone -36% 1 very limited data Zansecimab -36% 1 intravenous Atovaquone -39% 1 very limited data GB0139 -40% 1 very limited data Brensocatib -41% 1 very limited data Danicopan -43% 1 very limited data Fenretinide -44% 1 very limited data XAV-19 -45% 2 intravenous PPIs -46% 40 Beta-glucans -49% 2 very limited data Olokizumab -50% 1 subcutaneous Ixekizumab -50% 1 subcutaneous Edaravone -50% 1 intravenous TRV027 -54% 2 intravenous Glenzocimab -60% 1 intravenous Asapiprant -63% 1 very limited data Siltuximab -64% 1 intravenous rNAPc2 -65% 1 subcutaneous Avdoralimab -68% 1 intravenous Cytokine Adso.. -72% 2 very limited data SIR1-365 -88% 1 very limited data Zafirlukast -100% 1 very limited data Obefazimod -101% 1 very limited data Estetrol -102% 1 very limited data Amiodarone -103% 1 very limited data P2Et -114% 1 very limited data BI 764198 -117% 1 very limited data Varespladib -120% 1 very limited data Posaconazole -131% 1 very limited data Emvododstat -132% 1 very limited data Dalcetrapib -134% 1 very limited data Goflikicept -135% 1 subcutaneous Ramipril -144% 1 very limited data Ensifentrine -150% 1 very limited data YKYY017 -150% 1 very limited data Pemivibart -150% 1 intravenous Donidalorsen -151% 1 intravenous/subcutaneous MIB-626 -156% 1 very limited data Zavegepant -168% 1 very limited data Mefenamic Acid -189% 1 very limited data Apilimod -199% 1 very limited data Baloxavir -200% 1 very limited data Antroquinonol -200% 1 very limited data Zenuzolac -200% 1 very limited data Ammonium C.. -202% 1 very limited data Astodrimer S.. -205% 1 very limited data Brequinar -205% 1 very limited data Hesperidin -209% 1 very limited data Sipavibart -241% 2 intramuscular Selinexor -286% 1 very limited data Pegipanermin -290% 1 subcutaneous Efzofitimod -291% 1 very limited data LSALT peptide -407% 1 intravenous Clevudine -744% 1 very limited data All studies (pooled effects, all stages) c19early.org April 2026 Rotate device for details Favors treatment Favors control
Random-effects meta-analysis of all studies (pooled effects, all stages). Treatments with ≤3 studies with distinct authors or with <50 control events are shown in grey. Pooled results across all stages and outcomes depend on the distribution of stages and outcomes tested - for example late stage treatment may be less effective and if the majority of studies are late stage this may obscure the efficacy of early treatment. Please see the specific stage and outcome analyses. Protocols typically combine multiple treatments which may be complementary and synergistic, and the SOC in studies often includes other treatments. 0.5% of proposed treatments show efficacy in clinical studies.
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Random-effects meta-analysis of early treatment studies (pooled effects). Treatments with ≤3 studies with distinct authors or with <50 control events are shown in grey. Pooled results across all outcomes are affected by the distribution of outcomes tested, please see detail pages for specific outcome analysis. Protocols typically combine multiple treatments which may be complementary and synergistic, and the SOC in studies often includes other treatments. 0.5% of proposed treatments show efficacy in clinical studies.
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Random-effects meta-analysis of all mortality results (all stages). Treatments with ≤3 studies with distinct authors or with <25 control events are shown in grey. Pooled results across all stages depend on the distribution of stages tested - for example late stage treatment may be less effective and if the majority of studies are late stage this may obscure the efficacy of early treatment. Please see the specific stage analyses. Protocols typically combine multiple treatments which may be complementary and synergistic, and the SOC in studies often includes other treatments. 0.5% of proposed treatments show efficacy in clinical studies.
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Random-effects meta-analysis of early treatment mortality results. Treatments with ≤3 studies with distinct authors or with <25 control events are shown in grey. Protocols typically combine multiple treatments which may be complementary and synergistic, and the SOC in studies often includes other treatments. 0.5% of proposed treatments show efficacy in clinical studies.
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Random-effects meta-analysis of prophylaxis studies (pooled effects). Treatments with ≤3 studies with distinct authors or with <50 control events are shown in grey. Pooled results across all outcomes are affected by the distribution of outcomes tested, please see detail pages for specific outcome analysis. Protocols typically combine multiple treatments which may be complementary and synergistic, and the SOC in studies often includes other treatments. 0.5% of proposed treatments show efficacy in clinical studies.
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Random-effects meta-analysis of prophylaxis mortality results. Treatments with ≤3 studies with distinct authors or with <25 control events are shown in grey. Protocols typically combine multiple treatments which may be complementary and synergistic, and the SOC in studies often includes other treatments. 0.5% of proposed treatments show efficacy in clinical studies.
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Random-effects meta-analysis of long covid results. Treatments with ≤3 studies with distinct authors or with <50 control events are shown in grey. Pooled results across all stages and outcomes depend on the distribution of stages and outcomes tested - for example late stage treatment may be less effective and if the majority of studies are late stage this may obscure the efficacy of early treatment. Please see the specific stage and outcome analyses. Protocols typically combine multiple treatments which may be complementary and synergistic, and the SOC in studies often includes other treatments. 0.5% of proposed treatments show efficacy in clinical studies.
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Random-effects meta-analysis of transmission results. Treatments with ≤3 studies with distinct authors or with <50 control events are shown in grey. Pooled results across all stages and outcomes depend on the distribution of stages and outcomes tested - for example late stage treatment may be less effective and if the majority of studies are late stage this may obscure the efficacy of early treatment. Please see the specific stage and outcome analyses. Protocols typically combine multiple treatments which may be complementary and synergistic, and the SOC in studies often includes other treatments. 0.5% of proposed treatments show efficacy in clinical studies.
LATE TREATMENT
Physician / TeamLocationPatients HospitalizationHosp. MortalityDeath
Dr. David Uip (*) Brazil 2,200 38.6% (850) 2.5% (54)
Dr. Jake Scott (**) USA 1,000 10.0% (100)
Average 38.6% 6.2%
EARLY TREATMENT PROTOCOLS - 40 physicians/teams
Physician / TeamLocationPatients HospitalizationHosp. MortalityDeath
Dr. Roberto Alfonso Accinelli
0/360 deaths for treatment within 3 days		 Peru 1,265 0.6% (7)
Dr. Mohammed Tarek Alam
patients up to 84 years old		 Bangladesh 100 0.0% (0)
Dr. Oluwagbenga Alonge Nigeria 310 0.0% (0)
Dr. Raja Bhattacharya
up to 88yo, 81% comorbidities		 India 148 1.4% (2)
Dr. Flavio Cadegiani Brazil 3,450 0.1% (4) 0.0% (0)
Dr. Alessandro Capucci Italy 350 4.6% (16)
Dr. Shankara Chetty South Africa 8,000 0.0% (0)
Dr. Deborah Chisholm USA 100 0.0% (0)
Dr. Ryan Cole USA 400 0.0% (0) 0.0% (0)
Dr. Marco Cosentino
earlier treatment results were better		 Italy 392 6.4% (25) 0.3% (1)
Dr. Jeff Davis USA 6,000 0.0% (0)
Dr. Dhanajay India 500 0.0% (0)
Dr. Bryan Tyson & Dr. George Fareed USA 20,000 0.0% (6) 0.0% (4)
Dr. Raphael Furtado Brazil 170 0.6% (1) 0.0% (0)
Rabbi Yehoshua Gerzi Israel 860 0.1% (1) 0.0% (0)
Dr. Heather Gessling USA 1,500 0.1% (1)
Dr. Ellen Guimarães Brazil 500 1.6% (8) 0.4% (2)
Dr. Syed Haider USA 4,000 0.1% (5) 0.0% (0)
Dr. Mark Hancock USA 24 0.0% (0)
Dr. Sabine Hazan USA 1,000 0.0% (0)
Dr. Mollie James USA 3,500 1.1% (40) 0.0% (1)
Dr. Roberta Lacerda Brazil 550 1.5% (8) 0.4% (2)
Dr. Katarina Lindley USA 100 5.0% (5) 0.0% (0)
Dr. Ben Marble USA 150,000 0.0% (4)
Dr. Edimilson Migowski Brazil 2,000 0.3% (7) 0.1% (2)
Dr. Abdulrahman Mohana Saudi Arabia 2,733 0.0% (0)
Dr. Carlos Nigro Brazil 5,000 0.9% (45) 0.5% (23)
Dr. Benoit Ochs Luxembourg 800 0.0% (0)
Dr. Ortore Italy 240 1.2% (3) 0.0% (0)
Dr. Valerio Pascua
one patient already on oxygen died		 Honduras 415 6.3% (26) 0.2% (1)
Dr. Sebastian Pop Romania 300 0.0% (0)
Dr. Brian Proctor USA 869 2.3% (20) 0.2% (2)
Dr. Anastacio Queiroz Brazil 700 0.0% (0)
Dr. Didier Raoult France 8,315 2.6% (214) 0.1% (5)
Dr. Karin Ried
up to 99yo, 73% comorbidities		 Turkey 237 0.4% (1)
Dr. Roman Rozencwaig
patients up to 86 years old		 Canada 80 0.0% (0)
Dr. Vipul Shah India 8,000 0.1% (5)
Dr. Silvestre Sobrinho Brazil 116 8.6% (10) 0.0% (0)
Dr. Unknown Brazil 957 1.7% (16) 0.2% (2)
Dr. Vladimir Zelenko USA 2,200 0.5% (12) 0.1% (2)
Average 2.2% 0.1%
Physicians using early combined treatment protocols had much lower hospitalization and mortality rates compared with those following guidelines focusing on late treatment. Results are subject to selection and ascertainment bias and accurate analysis requires details of the patient populations and followup, however the results are consistent across many teams, and consistent with the extensive controlled clinical evidence showing a significant reduction in risk with many early treatments, and complementary/synergistic benefits with combined treatments. (*) Dr. Uip reportedly prescribed early treatment for himself, but not for patients1. (**) Dr. Scott reports treating hundreds of patients and losing over a hundred, but has not provided specific numbers2. Dr. Scott reports following (and helping create) US guidelines.
Bofutrelvir
Hu
Phase 1 RCT 120 healthy volunteers (80 US, 40 China) showing safety and tolerability of FB2001 (bofutrelvir).
Chen
In vitro and mouse study showing differential resistance of SARS-CoV-2 3CLpro T21I/E166A mutations to simnotrelvir, bofutrelvir, nirmatrelvir, and..
Inosine Pranobex
Veselý
127,038 patients early treatment: 46% lower mortality (p=0.11)
Xiannuoxin
Chen
In vitro and mouse study showing differential resistance of SARS-CoV-2 3CLpro T21I/E166A mutations to simnotrelvir, bofutrelvir, nirmatrelvir, and..
Ensitrelvir
Chen
In vitro and mouse study showing differential resistance of SARS-CoV-2 3CLpro T21I/E166A mutations to simnotrelvir, bofutrelvir, nirmatrelvir, and..
Baker
589 patient late treatment RCT: 40% higher mortality (p=0.36) and 22% worse recovery (p=0.17)
Paxlovid
Chen
In vitro and mouse study showing differential resistance of SARS-CoV-2 3CLpro T21I/E166A mutations to simnotrelvir, bofutrelvir, nirmatrelvir, and..
Butler
667 patient early treatment RCT: 52% lower combined mortality/hospitalization (p=0.39) and 42% improved recovery (p<0.0001)
Butler
3,371 patient early treatment RCT: 18% higher combined mortality/hospitalization (p=0.69), 27% improved recovery (p<0.0001), and 81% improved viral clearance (p=0.006)
Vitamin D
Marik
Analysis of case fatality rates showing that the CFR was significantly greater for Northern states (>40° latitude) compared to Southern States (6.0%..
Rizzi
139 patients sufficiency: 59% improved recovery (p=0.04)
Younes
Review of the influence of micronutrients on olfactory dysfunction associated with COVID-19 and long COVID. Author investigates how dietary..
HCQ
McCullough
Review of pathophysiological principles related to early outpatient treatment and therapeutic approaches including reduction of reinoculation,..
Zelenko
Report on the use of nebulized HCQ showing much more rapid improvement compared to tablets, with 95% of patients experiencing improved breathing..
Ivermectin
Lawrie
1,107 patients meta-analysis: 83% lower mortality (p<0.0001)
Kory
3,508 patients meta-analysis: 69% lower mortality (p<0.0001)
Miscellaneous
Song
In vitro study showing that SARS-CoV-2 pseudoparticles preferentially infect ectodermal cells derived from human embryonic stem cells (hESCs), with..
Lee
Mouse study showing that the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein S1 subunit induces neuroinflammation via microglial Kv1.3 channel activation, and that..
Rueda-Torres
Longitudinal cohort study of 33 hospitalized COVID-19 patients in Peru showing increased DNA damage in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs)..
Strikić
Cross-sectional study of 68 COVID-19 pharmacological intervention RCTs showing high rates of discordant adverse event and mortality reporting..
Remdesivir
Bagheri
Animal study (rat model) showing potential harm of remdesivir in ischemia/reperfusion-induced acute kidney injury. Authors found that subcutaneous..
Indomethacin
Fazio
Review of indomethacin as an antiviral drug for COVID-19.
Zinc
Younes
Review of the influence of micronutrients on olfactory dysfunction associated with COVID-19 and long COVID. Author investigates how dietary..
Vitamin C
Younes
Review of the influence of micronutrients on olfactory dysfunction associated with COVID-19 and long COVID. Author investigates how dietary..
Vitamin A
Younes
Review of the influence of micronutrients on olfactory dysfunction associated with COVID-19 and long COVID. Author investigates how dietary..
Recent studies (see the individual treatment pages for all studies):
May 31
 Lee et al., Biological Psychiatry Global Open Science, doi:10.1016/j.bpsgos.2026.100716 SARS-CoV-2 Spike Protein S1 Subunit Induces Neuroinflammation Via Microglial Kv1.3 Channel
Mouse study showing that the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein S1 subunit induces neuroinflammation via microglial Kv1.3 channel activation, and that chlorpromazine (CPZ) mitigates these effects.
Apr 27
 Chen et al., Journal of Virology, doi:10.1128/jvi.02223-25 SARS-CoV-2 3CLpro mutations T21I and E166A confer differential resistance to simnotrelvir, bofutrelvir, and ensitrelvir
In vitro and mouse study showing differential resistance of SARS-CoV-2 3CLpro T21I/E166A mutations to simnotrelvir, bofutrelvir, nirmatrelvir, and ensitrelvir. The resistant isolate SARS2-T21I/E166A showed 4.3-9.2-fold resistance to simno..
Apr 22
 Baker et al., Clinical Infectious Diseases, doi:10.1093/cid/ciag272 Ensitrelvir for the treatment of hospitalized adults with COVID-19: an international phase 3 randomized placebo-controlled trial
40% higher mortality (p=0.36) and 22% worse recovery (p=0.17). RCT 589 hospitalized patients showing no significant benefit for clinical outcomes with ensitrelvir treatment.
Apr 17
 Fang et al., Medicine, doi:10.1097/md.0000000000048378 Effectiveness of oral antivirals in reducing adverse outcomes in asthmatic patients with non-severe COVID-19: A multi-institutional retrospective cohort study
TriNetX retrospective 29,143 matched pairs of asthmatic non-hospitalized adults with COVID-19 showing lower mortality, hospitalization, and mechanical ventilation with oral antiviral treatment (nirmatrelvir/ritonavir or molnupiravir). Thi..
Apr 16
 Şimşek-Yavuz et al., Scientific Reports, doi:10.1038/s41598-026-44971-x Effectiveness and safety of molnupiravir among patients with mild to moderate COVID-19: a prospective, observational, cohort study
200% higher progression (p=0.34), 41% worse viral clearance (p=0.32), and 1% lower long COVID (p=0.93). PSM prospective observational cohort study of 844 mild COVID-19 patients (402 molnupiravir, 442 no antiviral) in Turkey showing higher progression to hospitalization, death, or new oxygen requirement within 28 days, without statistical si..
Apr 16
 Raheja et al., Journal of Virology, doi:10.1128/jvi.00276-26 HuR enhances SARS-CoV-2 non-structural protein translation through the genomic 5′-UTR, by promoting polypyrimidine tract-binding protein binding
In vitro study showing that human antigen R (HuR), an RNA-binding protein, promotes SARS-CoV-2 replication by enhancing non-structural protein translation through the viral genomic 5′-UTR in HEK-293T-ACE2 and A549 cells.
Apr 16
 Rizzi et al., International Journal of Molecular Sciences, doi:10.3390/ijms27083541 Higher 25(OH)D Levels at Admission Predict a Favorable Disease Evolution in Moderate-to-Severe COVID-19 Patients
59% improved recovery (p=0.04). Prospective observational cohort study of 139 hospitalized moderate-to-severe COVID-19 patients showing that higher baseline vitamin D levels predict favorable clinical outcomes.
Apr 15
 Abbas et al., PLOS One, doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0346978 Acute SARS-CoV-2 viral load and systemic inflammation are associated with neuropsychiatric and musculoskeletal symptoms in long COVID
26% lower long COVID (p=0.11). Retrospective 300 COVID-19 outpatients in Pakistan showing that 59% met criteria for long COVID at 10 months post-infection, with neuropsychiatric symptoms (35%) and musculoskeletal symptoms (32.2%) being the most common. In multivariable..
Apr 14
 Moussa Saley et al., IJID Regions, doi:10.1016/j.ijregi.2026.100897 Home care for COVID-19 patients: Niger’s experience; about 2,037 cases in the city of Niamey
Retrospective 2,037 COVID-19 outpatients in Niger receiving home-based care, showing a 95% recovery rate and 0.7% mortality. 98.7% received hydroxychloroquine and/or azithromycin treatment. Only 3.9% required hospitalization.
Apr 13
 Strikić et al., International Journal of Clinical Pharmacy, doi:10.1007/s11096-026-02130-2 Evaluation of consistency in adverse event reporting between trial registry and publications in COVID-19 pharmacological intervention trials
Cross-sectional study of 68 COVID-19 pharmacological intervention RCTs showing high rates of discordant adverse event and mortality reporting between ClinicalTrials.gov registry entries and corresponding peer-reviewed publications.
Apr 11
 Li et al., BMC Public Health, doi:10.1186/s12889-026-26908-1 Ursodeoxycholic acid treatment did not show protective effect for severe COVID-19 outcomes – a nationwide register study
9% lower mortality (p=0.82), 35% higher ICU admission (p=0.48), and 16% higher hospitalization (p=0.39). Retrospective nationwide register-based cohort study of 4,471 Swedish adults with liver/biliary diseases, showing no significant protective effect of ursodeoxycholic acid (UDCA) against severe COVID-19 outcomes. The study used a current-u..
Apr 9
 Abd Elsalam et al., AMB Express, doi:10.1186/s13568-026-02030-8 Anti-COVID-19 activity and simple HPLC method for concurrent detection of repurposed drugs in novel binary mixtures
In vitro study showing enhanced anti-SARS-CoV-2 activity of remdesivir-nitazoxanide and daclatasvir-piroxicam mixtures in Vero-E6 cells.
Apr 9
 Alkarkoukly et al., The Journal of Infectious Diseases, doi:10.1093/infdis/jiag203 Regulatory T-cell Notch4 expression correlates with mortality in hospitalized COVID-19 patients
Analysis of peripheral circulating regulatory T (Treg) cells in 169 hospitalized patients finding that persistent Notch4 expression serves as a critical late marker of mortality after six weeks of intensive care. Authors observed that thi..
Apr 8
 Younes, S., Next Research, doi:10.1016/j.nexres.2026.101727 The influence of micronutrients on olfactory dysfunction associated with COVID-19 and long COVID
Review of the influence of micronutrients on olfactory dysfunction associated with COVID-19 and long COVID. Author investigates how dietary supplements like vitamins A, B, C, D, E, zinc, and alpha-lipoic acid can help restore the sense of..
Apr 7
 Song et al., Frontiers in Cell and Developmental Biology, doi:10.3389/fcell.2026.1733662 SARS-CoV-2 pseudoparticles preferentially infect ectoderm in human embryonic tissues
In vitro study showing that SARS-CoV-2 pseudoparticles preferentially infect ectodermal cells derived from human embryonic stem cells (hESCs), with ectoderm showing ~23-fold greater infection than undifferentiated hESCs and ~6-fold greate..
Apr 6
 Du et al., MedComm, doi:10.1002/mco2.70715 Lycorine Derivative Inhibits SARS‐CoV‐2 Replication by Reducing −1 Programmed Ribosomal Frameshifting via Targeting ZAP
In vitro and animal study showing antiviral benefits of compound 7, a lycorine derivative, against SARS-CoV-2 and its variants (Alpha, Beta, Delta, Omicron) by targeting the zinc-finger antiviral protein short isoform (ZAP-S) to inhibit -..
Apr 3
 Alshahrani et al., bioRxiv, doi:10.64898/2026.04.02.716254 Frustration Landscapes of Broadly Neutralizing SARS-CoV-2 Spike Antibodies Targeting Conserved Epitopes Reveal Energetic Logic of Escape-Proof and Escape-Prone Mechanisms
In silico study showing that broadly neutralizing XGI antibodies targeting three super-conserved SARS-CoV-2 RBD epitopes (SCORE-A, SCORE-B, SCORE-C) achieve broad neutralization through strategic distribution of binding energy across mini..
Apr 2
 Su et al., Journal of Clinical Epidemiology, doi:10.1016/j.jclinepi.2026.112264 Moderate to high prevalence of spin revealed in abstracts and main texts of medical publications: A systematic review of research-on-research studies
Review of the prevalence of "spin" - defined as reporting practices that distort results to create misleading conclusions - across medical literature. Authors analyze 133 research-on-research studies, showing spin in 59% of rand..
Apr 2
 Henrich et al., NCT06161688 Placebo-Controlled, Randomized Trial of Ensitrelvir (S-217622) for Viral Persistence and Inflammation in People Experiencing Long COVID (PREVAIL-LC)
RCT 40 long COVID patients in the USA, showing no significant improvement with ensitrelvir.
Apr 2
 Zhu et al., Pharmaceuticals, doi:10.3390/ph19040574 Cardiovascular Risks of COVID-19 Therapeutics: Integrated Analysis of FAERS, Electronic Health Records, and Transcriptomics
Pharmacovigilance and EHR analysis of 8,143 FAERS remdesivir reports and over 255,000 TriNetX EHR records, showing significantly higher risk of cardiovascular adverse events (bradycardia, hypotension, and cardiac arrest) with remdesivir c..
Apr 1
 Tsunemi et al., BMJ Open Respiratory Research, doi:10.1136/bmjresp-2025-003800 Differential association of fluticasone furoate and budesonide with clinically detected COVID-19: a retrospective cohort study
Retrospective 334 outpatients (102 ICS users, 232 non-ICS users) over 4 years at a single Japanese center, showing lower COVID-19 cases with fluticasone furoate compared to budesonide, and lower cases for ICS users vs. non-ICS users.
Mar 31
 Song et al., Frontiers in Pharmacology, doi:10.3389/fphar.2026.1719144 Clinical effects of ursodeoxycholic acid in COVID-19 infection: a systematic review and dose–response meta-analysis
Systematic review and meta-analysis of 15 studies with 716,310 participants showing lower COVID-19 infection risk, severe infection risk, and ventilator use with ursodeoxycholic acid (UDCA) treatment. A dose-response relationship was obse..
Mar 31
 Reis et al., Annals of Internal Medicine, doi:10.7326/ANNALS-25-03959 The Effect of Fluvoxamine and Metformin for Fatigue in Patients With Long COVID
RCT 399 adults with long COVID fatigue in Brazil showing significant benefit with fluvoxamine but not metformin for reducing fatigue severity. Authors hypothesize that fluvoxamine's σ-1 receptor agonism and immunomodulatory properties may..
Mar 31
 Felemban et al., BMC Infectious Diseases, doi:10.1186/s12879-026-13170-4 The length of hospital stay in COVID-19 patients using pre-hospital metformin at a Saudi tertiary hospital: a retrospective cohort study
44% lower ventilation (p=0.24), 9% lower ICU admission (p=0.79), 35% lower ARDS (p=0.38), and 46% higher hospital discharge (p=0.01). Retrospective 114 hospitalized COVID-19 patients with T2DM in Saudi Arabia, showing significantly shorter hospital stay with pre-hospital metformin use.
Mar 31
 Pasquero et al., iScience, doi:10.1016/j.isci.2026.115038 Targeting peptidyl-arginine deiminase 4 suppresses SARS-CoV-2 replication and modulates the inflammatory response
In vitro and mouse study showing benefit of PAD4 inhibition with GSK199 and BB-Cl-amidine against SARS-CoV-2 infection.
Mar 31
 Kushwaha et al., Fabad Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences, doi:10.55262/fabadeczacilik.1757782 Medicinal Chemistry Approaches for Combatting SARS-CoV-2 and COVID-19 Therapeutics
Review of medicinal chemistry approaches for combating SARS-CoV-2 and COVID-19 therapeutics.
Mar 31
 Wallace et al., Frontiers in Immunology, doi:10.3389/fimmu.2026.1798566 Thymidine phosphorylase promotes SARS-CoV-2 spike protein-driven lung tumor development
Retrospective cohort study combined with mechanistic mouse studies showing increased lung cancer risk after SARS-CoV-2 infection, particularly among current smokers, and identifying thymidine phosphorylase (TYMP) as a key molecular driver..
Mar 31
 Rueda-Torres et al., Environmental and Molecular Mutagenesis, doi:10.1002/em.70055 Longitudinal Assessment of DNA Damage in PBMCs From Hospitalized COVID‐19 Patients via Alkaline Comet Assay
Longitudinal cohort study of 33 hospitalized COVID-19 patients in Peru showing increased DNA damage in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) during early hospitalization, peaking at day 3, as measured by alkaline comet assay.
Mar 31
 Veselý et al., International Journal of Infectious Diseases, doi:10.1016/j.ijid.2026.108519 Inosine pranobex was associated with a reduction in mortality in COVID-19 by over 22%, as reported in a retrospective study utilizing complete health data from the Czech national registry
46% lower mortality (p=0.11). Retrospective 67,841 inosine pranobex recipients matched 1:2 with 135,682 controls from the Czech national registry, showing significantly reduced COVID-19 mortality with treatment. Negative control outcome analyses (non-COVID mortality,..
We aim to cover the most promising early treatments for COVID-19. We use pre-specified effect extraction criteria that prioritizes more serious outcomes, for details see methods. For specific outcomes and different treatment stages see the individual pages.
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