Pentoxifylline: meta-analysis of COVID-19 studies

All studies Mortality Ventilation ICU Hospitalization Serious outcomes RCTs RCT mortality Peer-reviewed All outcomes

Outcome (studies)

Improvement

Relative risk · 95% CI

All studies (3)−15%

Mortality (3)−15%

Ventilation (2)35%

ICU admission (1)−60%

Hospitalization (1)15%

RCTs (3)−15%

RCT mortality (3)−15%

Late (3)−15%

00.511.5+

← Pentoxifylline
reduces riskIncreased
risk →

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c19early.org

October 2026

Pentoxifylline COVID-19 studies

StudyImprovementRR · 95% CIOutcomeTreatmentControlRelative Risk

Maldonado (RCT)65%0.35 · 0.09–1.31death3/264/12 Azizi (DB RCT)−540%6.40 · 0.34–120death3/400/32 Sarhan (RCT)−69%1.69 · 0.66–4.34death8/306/38

Late treatment−15%1.15 · 0.29–4.6314/9610/8215% higher risk

Tau² = 0.87, I² = 60.6%, p = 0.85

All studies−15%1.15 · 0.29–4.6314/9610/8215% higher risk

Tau² = 0.87, I² = 60.6%, p = 0.8500.511.52+

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← Pentoxifylline
reduces riskPentoxifylline
increases risk →

c19early.org

October 2026

Pentoxifylline COVID-19 mortality results

StudyImprovementRR · 95% CITreatmentControlRelative Risk

Maldonado (RCT)65%0.35 · 0.09–1.313/264/12 Azizi (DB RCT)−540%6.40 · 0.34–1203/400/32 Sarhan (RCT)−69%1.69 · 0.66–4.348/306/38

Late treatment−15%1.15 · 0.29–4.6314/9610/8215% higher risk

Tau² = 0.87, I² = 60.6%, p = 0.85

All studies−15%1.15 · 0.29–4.6314/9610/8215% higher risk

Tau² = 0.87, I² = 60.6%, p = 0.8500.511.52+

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← Pentoxifylline
reduces riskPentoxifylline
increases risk →

c19early.org

October 2026

Pentoxifylline COVID-19 mechanical ventilation results

StudyImprovementRR · 95% CITreatmentControlRelative Risk

Maldonado (RCT)54%0.46 · 0.11–1.963/263/12 Azizi (DB RCT)−60%1.60 · 0.15–16.862/401/32

Late treatment35%0.65 · 0.19–2.235/664/4435% lower risk

Tau² = 0.00, I² = 0.0%, p = 0.5

All studies35%0.65 · 0.19–2.235/664/4435% lower risk

Tau² = 0.00, I² = 0.0%, p = 0.500.511.52+

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← Pentoxifylline
reduces riskPentoxifylline
increases risk →

c19early.org

October 2026

Pentoxifylline COVID-19 ICU results

StudyImprovementRR · 95% CITreatmentControlRelative Risk

Azizi (DB RCT)−60%1.60 · 0.31–8.194/402/32

Late treatment−60%1.60 · 0.31–8.194/402/3260% higher risk

Tau² = 0.00, I² = 0.0%, p = 0.58

All studies−60%1.60 · 0.31–8.194/402/3260% higher risk

Tau² = 0.00, I² = 0.0%, p = 0.5800.511.52+

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← Pentoxifylline
reduces riskPentoxifylline
increases risk →

c19early.org

October 2026

Pentoxifylline COVID-19 hospitalization results

StudyImprovementRR · 95% CIOutcomeTreatmentControlRelative Risk

Maldonado (RCT)15%0.85 · 0.63–1.17hosp. time26 (n)12 (n)

Late treatment15%0.85 · 0.63–1.1726 (n)12 (n)15% lower risk

Tau² = 0.00, I² = 0.0%, p = 0.33

All studies15%0.85 · 0.63–1.1726 (n)12 (n)15% lower risk

Tau² = 0.00, I² = 0.0%, p = 0.3300.511.52+

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← Pentoxifylline
reduces riskPentoxifylline
increases risk →

c19early.org

October 2026

Pentoxifylline COVID-19 serious outcomes

StudyImprovementRR · 95% CIOutcomeTreatmentControlRelative Risk

Maldonado (RCT)65%0.35 · 0.09–1.31death3/264/12 Azizi (DB RCT)−540%6.40 · 0.34–120death3/400/32 Sarhan (RCT)−69%1.69 · 0.66–4.34death8/306/38

Late treatment−15%1.15 · 0.29–4.6314/9610/8215% higher risk

Tau² = 0.87, I² = 60.6%, p = 0.85

All studies−15%1.15 · 0.29–4.6314/9610/8215% higher risk

Tau² = 0.87, I² = 60.6%, p = 0.8500.511.52+

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← Pentoxifylline
reduces riskPentoxifylline
increases risk →

c19early.org

October 2026

Pentoxifylline COVID-19 Randomized Controlled Trials

StudyImprovementRR · 95% CIOutcomeTreatmentControlRelative Risk

Maldonado (RCT)65%0.35 · 0.09–1.31death3/264/12 Azizi (DB RCT)−540%6.40 · 0.34–120death3/400/32 Sarhan (RCT)−69%1.69 · 0.66–4.34death8/306/38

Late treatment−15%1.15 · 0.29–4.6314/9610/8215% higher risk

Tau² = 0.87, I² = 60.6%, p = 0.85

All studies−15%1.15 · 0.29–4.6314/9610/8215% higher risk

Tau² = 0.87, I² = 60.6%, p = 0.8500.511.52+

Rotate screen for more detailsIncrease width for more details

← Pentoxifylline
reduces riskPentoxifylline
increases risk →

c19early.org

October 2026

Pentoxifylline COVID-19 RCT mortality results

StudyImprovementRR · 95% CITreatmentControlRelative Risk

Maldonado (RCT)65%0.35 · 0.09–1.313/264/12 Azizi (DB RCT)−540%6.40 · 0.34–1203/400/32 Sarhan (RCT)−69%1.69 · 0.66–4.348/306/38

Late treatment−15%1.15 · 0.29–4.6314/9610/8215% higher risk

Tau² = 0.87, I² = 60.6%, p = 0.85

All studies−15%1.15 · 0.29–4.6314/9610/8215% higher risk

Tau² = 0.87, I² = 60.6%, p = 0.8500.511.52+

Rotate screen for more detailsIncrease width for more details

← Pentoxifylline
reduces riskPentoxifylline
increases risk →

c19early.org

October 2026

Pentoxifylline COVID-19 peer reviewed studies

StudyImprovementRR · 95% CIOutcomeTreatmentControlRelative Risk

Maldonado (RCT)65%0.35 · 0.09–1.31death3/264/12 Azizi (DB RCT)−540%6.40 · 0.34–120death3/400/32 Sarhan (RCT)−69%1.69 · 0.66–4.34death8/306/38

Late treatment−15%1.15 · 0.29–4.6314/9610/8215% higher risk

Tau² = 0.87, I² = 60.6%, p = 0.85

All studies−15%1.15 · 0.29–4.6314/9610/8215% higher risk

Tau² = 0.87, I² = 60.6%, p = 0.8500.511.52+

Rotate screen for more detailsIncrease width for more details

← Pentoxifylline
reduces riskPentoxifylline
increases risk →

c19early.org

October 2026

Pentoxifylline COVID-19 outcomes

StudyImprovementRR · 95% CIOutcomeTreatmentControlRelative Risk

Maldonado (RCT)65%0.35 · 0.09–1.31death3/264/12 Maldonado (RCT)54%0.46 · 0.11–1.96ventilation3/263/12 Maldonado (RCT)15%0.85 · 0.63–1.17hosp. time26 (n)12 (n) Azizi (DB RCT)−540%6.40 · 0.34–120death3/400/32 Azizi (DB RCT)−60%1.60 · 0.15–16.86ventilation2/401/32 Azizi (DB RCT)−60%1.60 · 0.31–8.19ICU4/402/32 Sarhan (RCT)−69%1.69 · 0.66–4.34death8/306/38 Sarhan (RCT)−45%1.45 · 0.59–3.54no improv.8/307/38

00.511.52+

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← Pentoxifylline
reduces riskPentoxifylline
increases risk →