Alkalinization reduces COVID-19 risk: real-time meta analysis of 14 studies
ControlAbstract
Significantly lower risk is seen for mortality, progression, recovery, and viral clearance. 11 studies from 10 independent teams in 8 countries show significant
benefit.
Meta analysis using the most serious outcome reported shows
49% [36‑59%] lower risk. Results are similar for Randomized Controlled Trials and peer-reviewed studies.
Early treatment is more effective than late treatment.
Results are very robust — in exclusion sensitivity analysis 13 of
14 studies must be excluded to avoid finding statistically significant
efficacy in pooled analysis.
SARS-CoV-2 requires acidic pH for endosomal entry1. Alkalinization of the respiratory mucosa may reduce risk. Studies to date typically use sodium bicarbonate.
No treatment is 100%
effective. Protocols combine safe and effective options with individual
risk/benefit analysis and monitoring.
We also present an analysis focusing on sodium bicarbonate2.
Alkalinization may affect the natural microbiome, especially with prolonged use.
All data and sources to reproduce this analysis are in the appendix.
Shafiee et al. present another meta analysis for alkalinization, showing significant improvements for mortality and recovery.
Alkalinization for COVID-19 — Highlights
Alkalinization reduces risk with very high confidence for mortality, progression, recovery, and in pooled analysis, high confidence for viral clearance, and low confidence for hospitalization and cases.
Early treatment is more effective than late treatment.
30th treatment shown effective in November 2021, now with p = 0.0000000039 from 14 studies.
Real-time updates and corrections with a consistent protocol for 141 treatments. Outcome specific analysis and combined evidence from all studies including treatment delay, a primary confounding factor.
Figure 1.
A. Random effects
meta-analysis. This plot shows pooled effects,
see the specific outcome analyses for individual outcomes.
Analysis validating pooled outcomes for
COVID-19 can be found below.
Effect extraction is pre-specified, using the most serious outcome reported.
For details see the appendix.
B. Timeline of results in alkalinization studies. The marked dates indicate the time when efficacy was known with a statistically significant improvement of ≥10% from ≥3 studies for pooled outcomes, one or more specific outcome, pooled outcomes in RCTs, and one or more specific outcome in RCTs. Efficacy based on RCTs only was delayed by 12.0 months, compared to using all studies. Efficacy based on specific outcomes was delayed by 6.2 months, compared to using pooled outcomes. Efficacy based on specific outcomes in RCTs was delayed by 7.5 months, compared to using pooled outcomes in RCTs.
Naso/oropharyngeal treatments
AlkalinizationAstodrimer Sodium
Cetylpyridin..
Chlorhexidine
Chlorphenira..
Hydrogen Per..
Iota-carragee..
Nitric Oxide
Phthalocyan..
Plasma-activ..
Povidone-Iod..
Sentinox
Sodium Bicar..
pHOXWELL
SARS-CoV-2 infection typically starts in the upper respiratory
tract, and specifically the nasal respiratory epithelium. Entry via the eyes
and gastrointestinal tract is possible, but less common, and entry via other
routes is rare.
Infection may progress to the lower respiratory tract, other tissues, and the
nervous and cardiovascular systems. The primary initial route for entry into
the central nervous system is thought to be the olfactory nerve in the nasal
cavity4.
Progression may lead to cytokine storm, pneumonia, ARDS, neurological
injury5-17 and cognitive
deficits8,13, cardiovascular
complications18-22, organ failure, and death.
Systemic treatments may be insufficient to prevent
neurological damage12.
Minimizing replication as early as possible is recommended.
Logically, stopping replication in the upper respiratory tract should be
simpler and more effective.
Wu et al., using an airway organoid model incorporating many in
vivo aspects, show that SARS-CoV-2 initially attaches to cilia —
hair-like structures responsible for moving the mucus layer and where ACE2 is
localized in nasal epithelial cells25. The mucus layer and the
need for ciliary transport slow down infection, providing more time for
localized treatments23,24.
Early or prophylactic nasopharyngeal/oropharyngeal treatment may avoid the
consequences of viral replication in other tissues, and avoid the requirement
for systemic treatments with greater potential for side effects.
SARS-CoV-2 infection and replication involves the complex interplay of 100+
host and viral proteins and other factorsA,26-33, providing many
therapeutic targets for which many existing compounds have known activity.
Scientists have predicted that over 9,000 compounds may
reduce COVID-19 risk34, either by
directly minimizing infection or replication, by supporting immune system
function, or by minimizing secondary complications.
Kreutzberger et al. showed that SARS-CoV-2 requires acidic pH for fusion. The mean pH of the airway-facing surface of the nasal cavity was 6.6, compatible with fusion, while pH is neutral in other parts of the nasopharyngeal cavity and in the lung35, suggesting no viral fusion in those locations prior to endocytic uptake. Liu et al. found that a more acidic pH significantly increased SARS-CoV-2 pseudovirus infection and cell surface ACE2 levels, mediated by pH-dependent inhibition of actin polymerization. Treatments that increase the pH of respiratory mucosa may inhibit fusion and reduce risk for COVID-19.
We analyze all significant
controlled studies of
alkalinization
for COVID-19.
Search methods, inclusion criteria, effect extraction criteria (more serious
outcomes have priority), all individual study data, PRISMA answers, and
statistical methods are detailed in Appendix 1. We present random
effects meta-analysis results for all studies, studies within each treatment stage, individual outcomes, peer-reviewed studies, and Randomized Controlled Trials (RCTs).
Figure 3 shows stages of possible treatment for
COVID-19. Prophylaxis refers to regularly taking medication before
becoming sick, in order to prevent or minimize infection. Early
Treatment refers to treatment immediately or soon after symptoms appear,
while Late Treatment refers to more delayed treatment.
Figure 3. Treatment stages.
Preclinical research is an important part of the development of
treatments, however results may be very different in clinical trials.
Preclinical results are not used in this paper.
Table 1 summarizes the results for all stages combined, for Randomized Controlled Trials, for peer-reviewed studies, and for specific outcomes.
Table 2 shows results by treatment stage.
Figure 4 plots individual results by treatment stage.
Figure 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, and 13
show forest plots for random effects meta-analysis of
all studies with pooled effects, mortality results, ICU admission, hospitalization, progression, recovery, cases, viral clearance, and peer reviewed studies.
| Improvement | Studies | Patients | Authors | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| All studies | 49% [36‑59%] **** | 14 | 6,320 | 125 |
| Peer-reviewed studiesPeer-reviewed | 52% [39‑62%] **** | 13 | 5,774 | 118 |
| Randomized Controlled TrialsRCTs | 43% [26‑56%] **** | 9 | 1,140 | 62 |
| Mortality | 46% [28‑59%] **** | 9 | 5,892 | 95 |
| HospitalizationHosp. | 27% [-3‑48%] | 3 | 616 | 47 |
| Recovery | 26% [20‑31%] **** | 3 | 901 | 18 |
| Viral | 41% [5‑64%] * | 3 | 289 | 19 |
| RCT mortality | 25% [3‑42%] * | 4 | 712 | 32 |
| Early treatment | Late treatment | Prophylaxis | |
|---|---|---|---|
| All studies | 76% [49‑88%] *** | 45% [32‑56%] **** | 45% [-22‑76%] |
| Peer-reviewed studiesPeer-reviewed | 76% [49‑88%] *** | 48% [35‑59%] **** | 45% [-22‑76%] |
| Randomized Controlled TrialsRCTs | 76% [49‑88%] *** | 35% [20‑47%] **** | 45% [-22‑76%] |
| Mortality | 46% [28‑59%] **** | ||
| HospitalizationHosp. | 86% [-165‑99%] | 25% [-4‑46%] | |
| Recovery | 24% [4‑40%] * | 25% [18‑32%] **** | |
| Viral | 37% [-106‑81%] | 42% [2‑66%] * | |
| RCT mortality | 25% [3‑42%] * |
Figure 4. Scatter plot showing the most serious outcome in all studies, and for studies within each stage. Diamonds shows the results of random effects meta-analysis.
Figure 5. Random effects meta-analysis for all studies.
This plot shows pooled effects,
see the specific outcome analyses for individual outcomes.
Analysis validating pooled outcomes for
COVID-19 can be found below.
Effect extraction is pre-specified, using the most serious outcome reported.
For details see the appendix.
Figure 6. Random effects meta-analysis for mortality results.
Figure 7. Random effects meta-analysis for ICU admission.
Figure 8. Random effects meta-analysis for hospitalization.
Figure 9. Random effects meta-analysis for progression.
Figure 10. Random effects meta-analysis for recovery.
Figure 11. Random effects meta-analysis for cases.
Figure 12. Random effects meta-analysis for viral clearance.
Figure 13. Random effects meta-analysis for peer reviewed studies.
Effect extraction is pre-specified, using the most serious outcome reported,
see the appendix for details.
Analysis validating pooled outcomes for
COVID-19 can be found below.
Zeraatkar et al. analyze 356 COVID-19 trials, finding no significant
evidence that preprint results are inconsistent with peer-reviewed studies.
They also show extremely long peer-review delays, with a median of 6 months to
journal publication. A six month delay was equivalent to around 1.5 million
deaths during the first two years of the pandemic. Authors recommend using
preprint evidence, with appropriate checks for potential falsified data, which
provides higher certainty much earlier. Davidson et al. also showed no
important difference between meta analysis results of preprints and
peer-reviewed publications for COVID-19, based on 37 meta analyses including
114 trials.
Figure 14 shows a comparison of results for RCTs and non-RCT studies.
Figure 15 and 16
show forest plots for random effects meta-analysis of
all Randomized Controlled Trials and RCT mortality results.
RCT results are included in Table 1 and Table 2.
Figure 14. Results for RCTs and non-RCT studies.
Figure 15. Random effects meta-analysis for all Randomized Controlled Trials.
This plot shows pooled effects,
see the specific outcome analyses for individual outcomes.
Analysis validating pooled outcomes for
COVID-19 can be found below.
Effect extraction is pre-specified, using the most serious outcome reported.
For details see the appendix.
Figure 16. Random effects meta-analysis for RCT mortality results.
RCTs help to make study groups more similar and can provide a higher level of
evidence, however they are subject to many biases41, and
analysis of double-blind RCTs has identified extreme levels of bias42.
For COVID-19, the overhead may delay treatment, dramatically compromising
efficacy; they may encourage monotherapy for simplicity at the cost of
efficacy which may rely on combined or synergistic effects; the participants
that sign up may not reflect real world usage or the population that benefits
most in terms of age, comorbidities, severity of illness, or other factors;
standard of care may be compromised and unable to evolve quickly based on
emerging research for new diseases; errors may be made in randomization and
medication delivery; and investigators may have hidden agendas or vested
interests influencing design, operation, analysis, reporting, and the
potential for fraud. All of these biases have been observed with COVID-19
RCTs. There is no guarantee that a specific RCT provides a higher level of
evidence.
RCTs are expensive and many RCTs are funded
by pharmaceutical companies or interests closely aligned with pharmaceutical
companies. For COVID-19, this creates an incentive to show efficacy for
patented commercial products, and an incentive to show a lack of efficacy for
inexpensive treatments. The bias is expected to be significant, for example
Als-Nielsen et al. analyzed 370 RCTs from Cochrane reviews, showing that
trials funded by for-profit organizations were 5 times more likely to
recommend the experimental drug compared with those funded by nonprofit
organizations. For COVID-19, some major philanthropic organizations are
largely funded by investments with extreme conflicts of interest for and
against specific COVID-19 interventions.
High quality RCTs for novel acute diseases are more challenging, with
increased ethical issues due to the urgency of treatment, increased risk due
to enrollment delays, and more difficult design with a rapidly evolving
evidence base. For COVID-19, the most common site of initial infection is the
upper respiratory tract. Immediate treatment is likely to be most successful
and may prevent or slow progression to other parts of the body. For a
non-prophylaxis RCT, it makes sense to provide treatment in advance and
instruct patients to use it immediately on symptoms, just as some governments
have done by providing medication kits in advance. Unfortunately, no RCTs have
been done in this way. Every treatment RCT to date involves delayed treatment.
Among the 141 treatments we have analyzed,
66% of RCTs involve very late treatment 5+ days after
onset. No non-prophylaxis COVID-19 RCTs match the potential real-world use of
early treatments. They may more accurately represent results for treatments
that require visiting a medical facility, e.g., those requiring intravenous
administration.
RCTs have a bias against finding an effect for interventions
that are widely available — patients that believe they need the
intervention are more likely to decline participation and take the
intervention. RCTs for alkalinization are more likely to enroll low-risk
participants that do not need treatment to recover, making the results less
applicable to clinical practice. This bias is likely to be greater for widely
known treatments, and may be greater when the risk of a serious outcome is
overstated. This bias does not apply to the typical pharmaceutical trial of a
new drug that is otherwise unavailable.
For COVID-19, observational study results do not systematically
differ from RCTs, RR 1.00 [0.93‑1.08]
across 141 treatments44.
Evidence shows that observational studies
can also provide reliable results. Concato et al. found that well-designed
observational studies do not systematically overestimate the magnitude of the
effects of treatment compared to RCTs. Anglemyer et al. analyzed reviews
comparing RCTs to observational studies and found little evidence for
significant differences in effect estimates.
We performed a similar analysis across the 141 treatments
we cover, showing no significant difference in the results of RCTs compared to
observational studies, RR 1.00 [0.93‑1.08]. Similar results are found for all low-cost treatments, RR
1.02 [0.93‑1.12]. High-cost treatments
show a non-significant trend towards RCTs showing greater efficacy,
RR 0.93 [0.83‑1.04].
Details can be found in the
supplementary data.
Lee (B) et al. showed that only 14% of the guidelines of the Infectious
Diseases Society of America were based on RCTs. Evaluation of studies relies
on an understanding of the study and potential biases. Limitations in an RCT
can outweigh the benefits, for example excessive dosages, excessive treatment
delays, or remote survey bias may have a greater effect on results. Ethical
issues may also prevent running RCTs for known effective treatments. For more
on issues with RCTs see48,49.
Currently, 52 of the treatments we analyze show statistically significant efficacy or harm, defined as ≥10% decreased risk or >0% increased risk from ≥3 studies. Of these, 60% have been confirmed in RCTs, with a mean delay of 7.7 months (66% with 8.8 months delay for low-cost treatments). The remaining treatments either have no RCTs, or the point estimate is consistent.
We need to evaluate each trial on its own merits. RCTs for a
given medication and disease may be more reliable, however they may also be
less reliable. For off-patent medications, very high conflict of interest
trials may be more likely to be RCTs, and more likely to be large trials that
dominate meta analyses.
Figure 17.
Optimal spray angle may increase nasopharyngeal drug delivery 100x for nasal sprays,
adapted from Akash et al.
In addition to the dosage and frequency of administration,
efficacy for nasopharyngeal/oropharyngeal treatments may depend on many
other details. For example considering sprays, viscosity, mucoadhesion,
sprayability, and application angle are important.
Akash et al. performed a computational fluid dynamics study
of nasal spray administration showing 100x improvement in nasopharyngeal drug
delivery using a new spray placement protocol, which involves holding the spay
nozzle as horizontally as possible at the nostril, with a slight tilt towards
the cheeks. The study also found the optimal droplet size range for
nasopharyngeal deposition was ~7-17µm.
Heterogeneity in COVID-19 studies arises from many factors including:
The time between infection or the onset of symptoms and
treatment may critically affect how well a treatment works. For example an
antiviral may be very effective when used early but may not be effective in
late stage disease, and may even be harmful. Oseltamivir, for example, is
generally only considered effective for influenza when used within 0-36 or
0-48 hours51,52. Baloxavir marboxil studies for influenza
also show that treatment delay is critical — Ikematsu et al. report
an 86% reduction in cases for post-exposure prophylaxis, Hayden et al.
show a 33 hour reduction in the time to alleviation of symptoms for treatment
within 24 hours and a reduction of 13 hours for treatment within 24-48 hours,
and Kumar et al. report only 2.5 hours improvement for inpatient
treatment.
| Treatment delay | Result |
| Post-exposure prophylaxis | 86% fewer cases53 |
| <24 hours | -33 hours symptoms54 |
| 24-48 hours | -13 hours symptoms54 |
| Inpatients | -2.5 hours to improvement55 |
Figure 18 shows a mixed-effects meta-regression for efficacy
as a function of treatment delay in COVID-19 studies from 141 treatments, showing
that efficacy declines rapidly with treatment delay. Early treatment is
critical for COVID-19.
Figure 18. Early treatment is more effective. Meta-regression showing efficacy as a function of treatment delay in COVID-19 studies from 141 treatments.
Details of the patient population including age and comorbidities may
critically affect how well a treatment works. For example, many COVID-19
studies with relatively young low-comorbidity patients show all patients
recovering quickly with or without treatment. In such cases, there is little
room for an effective treatment to improve results, for example as in
López-Medina et al.
Efficacy may depend critically on the distribution of
SARS-CoV-2 variants encountered by patients. Risk varies significantly across
variants57, for example the Gamma variant shows significantly
different characteristics58-61. Different
mechanisms of action may be more or less effective depending on variants, for
example the degree to which TMPRSS2 contributes to viral entry can differ
across variants62,63.
Effectiveness may depend strongly on the dosage and treatment regimen.
The quality of medications may vary significantly between
manufacturers and production batches, which may significantly affect efficacy
and safety. Williams et al. analyze ivermectin from 11 different sources,
showing highly variable antiparasitic efficacy across different manufacturers.
Xu et al. analyze a treatment from two different manufacturers, showing 9
different impurities, with significantly different concentrations for each
manufacturer.
Across all
studies there is a strong association between different outcomes, for example
improved recovery is strongly associated with lower mortality. However,
efficacy may differ depending on the effect measured, for example a treatment
may be more effective against secondary complications and have minimal effect
on viral clearance.
The
distribution of studies will alter the outcome of a meta analysis. Consider a
simplified example where everything is equal except for the treatment delay,
and effectiveness decreases to zero or below with increasing delay. If there
are many studies using very late treatment, the outcome may be negative, even
though early treatment is very effective.
All meta analyses combine heterogeneous studies, varying in population,
variants, and potentially all factors above, and therefore may obscure
efficacy by including studies where treatment is less effective. Generally, we
expect the estimated effect size from meta analysis to be less than that for
the optimal case.
Looking at all studies is valuable for providing an overview of all research,
important to avoid cherry-picking, and informative when a positive result is
found despite combining less-optimal situations. However, the resulting
estimate does not apply to specific cases such as
early treatment in high-risk populations.
While we present results for all studies, we also present treatment time and
individual outcome analyses, which may be more informative for specific use
cases.
This section validates the use of pooled effects for COVID-19, which enables
earlier detection of efficacy, however pooled effects are no longer required
for alkalinization as of May 2022. Efficacy is now known based on specific outcomes for all studies and when restricted to RCTs. Efficacy based on specific outcomes was delayed by 6.2 months compared to using pooled outcomes. Efficacy based on specific outcomes in RCTs was delayed by 7.5 months compared to using pooled outcomes in RCTs.
For COVID-19, delay in clinical results translates into
additional death and morbidity, as well as additional economic and societal
damage. Combining the results of studies reporting different outcomes is
required.
There may be no mortality in a trial with low-risk patients,
however a reduction in severity or improved viral clearance may translate
into lower mortality in a high-risk population.
Different studies may report lower severity, improved recovery, and lower mortality,
and the significance may be very high when combining the results.
"The studies reported different outcomes" is not a good reason for
disregarding results.
Pooling the results of studies reporting different outcomes allows us to use
more of the available information. Logically we should, and do, use additional
information when evaluating treatments—for example dose-response and
treatment delay-response relationships provide additional evidence of efficacy
that is considered when reviewing the evidence for a treatment.
We present both specific outcome and pooled analyses.
In order to combine the results of studies reporting different outcomes we use
the most serious outcome reported in each study, based on the thesis that
improvement in the most serious outcome provides comparable measures of
efficacy for a treatment. A critical advantage of this approach is
simplicity and transparency.
There are many other ways to combine evidence for different outcomes, along
with additional evidence such as dose-response relationships, however these
increase complexity.
Trials with high-risk patients may be restricted due to ethics for treatments
that are known or expected to be effective, and they increase difficulty for
recruiting. Using less severe outcomes as a proxy for more serious outcomes
allows faster and safer collection of evidence.
For many COVID-19 treatments, a reduction in mortality logically
follows from a reduction in hospitalization, which follows from a reduction in
symptomatic cases, which follows from a reduction in PCR positivity. We can
directly test this for COVID-19.
Analysis of the the association between different outcomes across studies from
all 141
treatments we cover confirms the validity of pooled outcome analysis for COVID-19.
Figure 19 shows that lower hospitalization is very strongly associated
with lower mortality (p < 0.000000000001).
Similarly, Figure 20 shows that improved recovery is very strongly associated
with lower mortality (p < 0.000000000001).
Considering the extremes, Singh et al. show an association between viral clearance and
hospitalization or death, with p = 0.003 after excluding one large
outlier from a mutagenic treatment, and based on 44 RCTs including 52,384
patients.
Figure 21 shows that improved viral clearance is strongly associated
with fewer serious outcomes. The association is very similar to
Singh et al., with higher confidence due to the larger number of
studies. As with Singh et al., the confidence increases
when excluding the outlier treatment, from p = 0.00000011 to p = 0.0000000048.
Figure 19. Lower hospitalization is associated with lower mortality, supporting pooled outcome analysis.
Figure 20. Improved recovery is associated with lower mortality, supporting pooled outcome analysis.
Figure 19. Improved viral clearance is associated with fewer serious outcomes, supporting pooled outcome analysis.
Currently, 52 of the treatments we analyze show statistically significant efficacy or harm, defined as ≥10% decreased risk or >0% increased risk from ≥3 studies. 88% of these have been confirmed with one or more specific outcomes, with a mean delay of 4.6 months. When restricting to RCTs only, 55% of treatments showing statistically significant efficacy/harm with pooled effects have been confirmed with one or more specific outcomes, with a mean delay of 7.3 months.
Figure 22 shows when treatments were found effective during the
pandemic. Pooled outcomes often resulted in earlier detection of efficacy.
Figure 22. The time when studies showed that
treatments were effective, defined as statistically significant improvement of
≥10% from ≥3 studies.
Pooled results typically show efficacy earlier than specific
outcome results. Results from all studies often shows efficacy much earlier
than when restricting to RCTs.
Results reflect conditions as used in trials to date, these depend on the
population treated, treatment delay, and treatment regimen.
Pooled analysis could hide efficacy, for example a treatment that is
beneficial for late stage patients but has no effect on viral clearance may
show no efficacy if most studies only examine viral clearance. In practice, it
is rare for a non-antiviral treatment to report viral clearance and to not
report clinical outcomes; and in practice other sources of heterogeneity such
as difference in treatment delay is more likely to hide efficacy.
Analysis validates the use of pooled effects and shows significantly faster
detection of efficacy on average.
However, as with all meta analyses, it is important to review the different
studies included. We also present individual outcome analyses, which may be
more informative for specific use cases.
Studies to date use a variety of administration methods to the
respiratory tract, including nasal and oral sprays, nasal irrigation, oral
rinses, and inhalation. Table 4 shows the relative efficacy for
nasal, oral, and combined administration. Combined administration shows the
best results, and nasal administration is more effective than oral. Precise
efficacy depends on the details of administration, e.g., mucoadhesion and
sprayability for sprays.
| Nasal/oral administration to the respiratory tract | Improvement | Studies |
| Oral spray/rinse | 38% [25‑49%] | 11 |
| Nasal spray/rinse | 56% [48‑63%] | 17 |
| Nasal & oral | 91% [74‑97%] | 7 |
Nasopharyngeal/oropharyngeal treatments may not be highly selective. In
addition to inhibiting or disabling SARS-CoV-2, they may also be harmful to
beneficial microbes, disrupting the natural microbiome in the oral cavity and
nasal passages that have important protective and metabolic roles84. This may be
especially important for prolonged use or overuse.
Table 5 summarizes the potential for common
nasopharyngeal/oropharyngeal treatments to affect the natural
microbiome.
| Treatment | Microbiome disruption potential | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Iota-carrageenan | Low | Primarily antiviral, however extended use may mildly affect the microbiome |
| Nitric Oxide | Low to moderate | More selective towards pathogens, however excessive concentrations or prolonged use may disrupt the balance of bacteria |
| Alkalinization | Moderate | Increases pH, negatively impacting beneficial microbes that thrive in a slightly acidic environment |
| Cetylpyridinium Chloride | Moderate | Quaternary ammonium broad-spectrum antiseptic that can disrupt beneficial and harmful bacteria |
| Phthalocyanine | Moderate to high | Photodynamic compound with antimicrobial activity, likely to affect the microbiome |
| Chlorhexidine | High | Potent antiseptic with broad activity, significantly disrupts the microbiome |
| Hydrogen Peroxide | High | Strong oxidizer, harming both beneficial and harmful microbes |
| Povidone-Iodine | High | Potent broad-spectrum antiseptic harmful to beneficial microbes |
Consuming acidic foods and beverages may temporarily lower
salivary pH85, which could theoretically create a more
favorable environment for SARS-CoV-2 infection. While initial infection
typically starts in the nasal cavity, lower pH may facilitate infection in the
throat and further progression (changes in nasal cavity pH are also possible,
for example via acidic aerosols from carbonated beverages).
Other factors that could lower the pH in the respiratory tract include
gastroesophageal reflux disease - certain foods and drinks may relax the lower
esophageal sphincter, allowing stomach acid to flow back into the esophagus
and potentially into the respiratory tract; aspiration - consuming liquids or
foods with a low pH can lead to aspiration, where the contents are
accidentally inhaled into the lungs, causing irritation and lowering the pH in
the respiratory tract; high sugar diets - consuming excessive amounts of sugar
may promote the growth of bacteria in the mouth and throat, which can produce
acid and lower the pH in the respiratory tract; and dehydration - not drinking
enough water can lead to a decrease in saliva production, which plays a role
in neutralizing acid in the mouth and throat, and therefore may result in a
lower pH in the respiratory tract.
Foods and beverages that can directly lower the pH of the throat include:
citrus fruits and juices: lemons, limes, oranges, grapefruits, and their
juices have a low pH (2.0-3.0) due to their high citric acid content;
carbonated beverages: carbonated drinks have a pH range of 2.0-4.0 due to the
presence of carbonic acid; vinegar and vinegar-based dressings: vinegar has a
pH of around 2.5-3.0 due to its acetic acid content; tomatoes and tomato-based
products: tomatoes, tomato juice, and tomato sauce have a pH range of 4.0-4.5;
coffee and tea: while the pH of coffee and tea can vary, they are generally
acidic, with pH values ranging from 4.5-6.0; alcoholic beverages: most
alcoholic drinks have a pH below 7.0, with wine having a pH of 3.0-3.5 and
beer having a pH of 4.0-5.0.
When these acidic substances come into contact with the throat, they can
temporarily lower the pH. The body has mechanisms to help neutralize
the acid and restore the pH balance, such as saliva production and the
buffering capacity of the throat's mucous membranes. Frequent exposure to
highly acidic substances or having conditions like acid reflux can lead to
more persistent changes in the throat's pH.
Studies have not specifically looked at COVID-19 risk based on
changes in the respiratory tract pH with different diets, however the benefits
of nasopharyngeal/oropharyngeal alkalinization seen here match the expected
increased risk with lower pH, and suggest caution with consumption of food and
beverages that lowers pH while waiting for the results of controlled clinical
studies.
Publishing is often biased
towards positive results, however evidence suggests that there may be a negative bias for
inexpensive treatments for COVID-19. Both negative and positive results are
very important for COVID-19, media in many countries prioritizes negative
results for inexpensive treatments (inverting the typical incentive for
scientists that value media recognition), and there are many reports of
difficulty publishing positive results86-89.
For alkalinization, there is currently not
enough data to evaluate publication bias with high confidence.
One method to evaluate bias is to compare prospective vs.
retrospective studies. Prospective studies are more likely to be published
regardless of the result, while retrospective studies are more likely to
exhibit bias. For example, researchers may perform preliminary analysis with
minimal effort and the results may influence their decision to continue.
Retrospective studies also provide more opportunities for the specifics of
data extraction and adjustments to influence results.
Figure 23 shows a scatter plot of
results for prospective and retrospective studies.
100% of retrospective studies
report a statistically significant positive effect for
one or more outcomes, compared to
73% of prospective studies, consistent with a bias toward publishing positive results.
The median effect size for
retrospective studies is 49% improvement,
compared to 64% for prospective
studies, suggesting a potential bias towards publishing results showing lower efficacy.
Figure 23. Prospective vs. retrospective studies.
The diamonds show the results of random effects meta-analysis.
Studies for alkalinization were primarily late treatment studies, in
contrast with typical patented treatments that were tested with early
treatment as recommended.
Figure 24. Patented treatments received mostly early treatment studies, while low cost treatments were typically tested for late treatment.
Funnel
plots have traditionally been used for analyzing publication bias. This is
invalid for COVID-19 acute treatment trials — the underlying assumptions
are invalid, which we can demonstrate with a simple example. Consider a set of
hypothetical perfect trials with no bias. Figure 25 plot A
shows a funnel plot for a simulation of 80 perfect trials, with random group
sizes, and each patient's outcome randomly sampled (10% control event
probability, and a 30% effect size for treatment). Analysis shows no asymmetry
(p > 0.05). In plot B, we add a single typical variation in COVID-19 treatment
trials — treatment delay. Consider that efficacy varies from 90% for
treatment within 24 hours, reducing to 10% when treatment is delayed 3 days.
In plot B, each trial's treatment delay is randomly selected. Analysis now
shows highly significant asymmetry, p < 0.0001, with six variants of
Egger's test all showing p < 0.0590-97.
Note that these tests fail even though treatment delay is uniformly
distributed. In reality treatment delay is more complex — each trial has
a different distribution of delays across patients, and the distribution
across trials may be biased (e.g., late treatment trials may be more common).
Similarly, many other variations in trials may produce asymmetry, including
dose, administration, duration of treatment, differences in SOC,
comorbidities, age, variants, and bias in design, implementation, analysis,
and reporting.
Figure 25. Example funnel plot analysis for simulated perfect trials.
Pharmaceutical drug
trials often have conflicts of interest whereby sponsors or trial staff have a
financial interest in the outcome being positive. Alkalinization for COVID-19
lacks this because it is off-patent, has multiple manufacturers, and is very low cost.
In contrast, most COVID-19 alkalinization trials have been run by
physicians on the front lines with the primary goal of finding the best
methods to save human lives and minimize the collateral damage caused by
COVID-19. While pharmaceutical companies are careful to run trials under
optimal conditions (for example, restricting patients to those most likely to
benefit, only including patients that can be treated soon after onset when
necessary, and ensuring accurate dosing), not all alkalinization trials
represent the optimal conditions for efficacy.
Summary statistics from
meta analysis necessarily lose information. As with all meta analyses, studies
are heterogeneous, with differences
in treatment delay, treatment regimen, patient demographics, variants,
conflicts of interest, standard of care, and other factors. We provide analyses for specific
outcomes and by treatment delay, and we aim to identify key characteristics in
the forest plots and summaries. Results should be viewed in the context of
study characteristics.
Some analyses classify treatment based on early or late
administration, as done here, while others distinguish between mild, moderate,
and severe cases. Viral load does not indicate degree of symptoms — for
example patients may have a high viral load while being asymptomatic. With
regard to treatments that have antiviral properties, timing of treatment is
critical — late administration may be less helpful regardless of
severity.
Details of treatment delay per patient is often not available.
For example, a study may treat 90% of patients relatively early, but the
events driving the outcome may come from 10% of patients treated very late.
Our 5 day cutoff for early treatment may be too conservative, 5 days may be too late in many cases.
Comparison across treatments is confounded by differences in
the studies performed, for example dose, variants, and conflicts of interest.
Trials with conflicts of interest may use designs better suited to the
preferred outcome.
In some cases, the most serious outcome has very few events,
resulting in lower confidence results being used in pooled analysis, however
the method is simpler and more transparent. This is less critical as the
number of studies increases. Restriction to outcomes with sufficient power may
be beneficial in pooled analysis and improve accuracy when there are few
studies, however we maintain our pre-specified method to avoid any
retrospective changes.
Studies show that combinations of treatments can be highly
synergistic and may result in many times greater efficacy than individual
treatments alone66-82.
Therefore standard of care may be critical and benefits may diminish or
disappear if standard of care does not include certain treatments.
This real-time analysis is constantly updated based on
submissions. Accuracy benefits from widespread review and submission of
updates and corrections from reviewers. Less popular treatments may receive
fewer reviews.
No treatment or intervention is 100% available and
effective for all current and future variants. Efficacy may vary significantly
with different variants and within different populations. All treatments have
potential side effects. Propensity to experience side effects may be predicted
in advance by qualified physicians. We do not provide medical advice. Before
taking any medication, consult a qualified physician who can compare all
options, provide personalized advice, and provide details of risks and
benefits based on individual medical history and situations.
3 of 14 studies
combine treatments. The results of
alkalinization
alone may differ.
None of the RCTs use combined treatment.
Shafiee et al. present another meta analysis for alkalinization, showing significant improvements for mortality and recovery.
SARS-CoV-2 infection and replication involves a complex
interplay of 100+ host and viral proteins and other
factors26-33, providing many therapeutic
targets.
Over 9,000 compounds have been predicted to reduce COVID-19
risk34, either by directly
minimizing infection or replication, by supporting immune system function, or
by minimizing secondary complications.
Figure 26 shows an overview of the results for alkalinization
in the context of multiple COVID-19 treatments, and Figure 27 shows a plot
of efficacy vs. cost for COVID-19 treatments.
Figure 26.
Scatter plot showing results within the context of multiple COVID-19 treatments.
Diamonds shows the results of random effects meta-analysis.
0.6% of 9,000+ proposed treatments show efficacy101.
Figure 27. Efficacy vs. cost for COVID-19 treatments.
SARS-CoV-2 infection typically starts in the upper respiratory tract.
Progression may lead to cytokine storm, pneumonia, ARDS, neurological issues,
organ failure, and death. Stopping replication in the upper respiratory tract,
via early or prophylactic nasopharyngeal/oropharyngeal treatment, can avoid
the consequences of progression to other tissues, and avoid the requirement
for systemic treatments with greater potential for side effects.
Studies to date show that alkalinization is
an effective treatment for COVID-19.
Significantly lower risk is seen for mortality, progression, recovery, and viral clearance. 11 studies from 10 independent teams in 8 countries show significant
benefit.
Meta analysis using the most serious outcome reported shows
49% [36‑59%] lower risk. Results are similar for Randomized Controlled Trials and peer-reviewed studies.
Early treatment is more effective than late treatment.
Results are very robust — in exclusion sensitivity analysis 13 of
14 studies must be excluded to avoid finding statistically significant
efficacy in pooled analysis.
SARS-CoV-2 requires acidic pH for endosomal entry1. Alkalinization of the respiratory mucosa may reduce risk. Studies to date typically use sodium bicarbonate.
Shafiee et al. present another meta analysis for alkalinization, showing significant improvements for mortality and recovery.
We also present an analysis focusing on sodium bicarbonate2.
Alkalinization may affect the natural microbiome, especially with prolonged use.
Retrospective 5,146 hospitalized COVID-19 patients in Argentina, showing lower mortality associated with nebulized ibuprofen (NaIHS) treatment. Doubly robust inverse probability weighting estimators were used to control for confounding. Authors emphasize the need for randomized controlled trials.
The treatment appears to be the same as detailed in102, which reports a pH of 8.5. Kreutzberger et al. showed that SARS-CoV-2 requires an acidic pH (between 6.2-6.8) for membrane fusion and cell entry, even when the viral spike protein is primed by proteases like TMPRSS2. Efficacy seen here may be more due to alkalinization, which shows more consistent higher efficacy than ibuprofen in studies to date.
The treatment appears to be the same as detailed in102, which reports a pH of 8.5. Kreutzberger et al. showed that SARS-CoV-2 requires an acidic pH (between 6.2-6.8) for membrane fusion and cell entry, even when the viral spike protein is primed by proteases like TMPRSS2. Efficacy seen here may be more due to alkalinization, which shows more consistent higher efficacy than ibuprofen in studies to date.
RCT 355 adults with COVID-19 or other upper respiratory tract infections (URTIs). For COVID-19 patients there was lower progression and faster symptom resolution with alkaline seawater nasal wash (pH ~8) 4 times daily for 21 days. There was significantly lower transmission for patients with the delta variant and for patients with high viral load. The seawater nasal wash was safe and well-tolerated.
RCT mechanically ventilated patients in Croatia, 42 treated with sodium bicarbonate inhalation, and 52 control patients, showing no significant difference in mortality with treatment. Treated patients showed a lower incidence of gram-positive or MRSA-caused ventilator-associated pneumonia. ICU mortality results are from103.
RCT 546 patients showing significantly faster recovery and lower mortality with sodium bicarbonate (inhaled and nasal drops). The reduction in mortality is only statistically significant when excluding baseline critical cases.
Inhalation of nebulized sodium bicarbonate 8.4% (5ml every 4h) 7:00am to 23:00pm every day for 30 days together with 8.4% nasal drops 4 times daily (three drops for each nostril).
Inhalation of nebulized sodium bicarbonate 8.4% (5ml every 4h) 7:00am to 23:00pm every day for 30 days together with 8.4% nasal drops 4 times daily (three drops for each nostril).
Prospective study of 182 COVID-19 pneumonia patients, 127 treated with sodium bicarbonate inhalation and nasal drops, showing significantly faster recovery and improved CT scores with treatment.
Authors note that contacts of index cases also received sodium bicarbonate treatment, with none reporting COVID-19.
Inhalation of nebulized sodium bicarbonate 8.4% (5ml every 4h) 7:00am to 23:00pm every day for 30 days together with 8.4% nasal drops 4 times daily (three drops for each nostril).
Authors note that contacts of index cases also received sodium bicarbonate treatment, with none reporting COVID-19.
Inhalation of nebulized sodium bicarbonate 8.4% (5ml every 4h) 7:00am to 23:00pm every day for 30 days together with 8.4% nasal drops 4 times daily (three drops for each nostril).
Retrospective 99 COVID-19 patients in Argentina showing significantly lower mortality with inhaled alkaline hypertonic ibuprofen (AHI) treatment. The treatment has a pH of 8.5. 3 times daily for 7-10 days.
RCT 116 healthcare workers comparing 0.2% chlorhexidine mouthwash (n=36), 7.5% sodium bicarbonate mouthwash (n=40), and placebo (n=40) twice daily for 2 weeks, with symptoms followed for 4 weeks. There were lower symtoms and cases in both treatment groups, with statistical significance for chlorhexidine only. The treatments were stopped after two weeks, results may be better with continued use, more frequent use, and with the addition of nasal use.
Early terminated RCT 16 critically ill COVID-19 patients showing no significant difference in AKI development or mortality with alkalinization using intravenous sodium bicarbonate. The intervention group achieved higher urine pH (75% vs 37.5% reached pH ≥ 7.5), but AKI incidence (37.5% vs 62.5%) and 60-day mortality (12.5% vs 37.5%) were not statistically different. Recruitment stopped early due to declining COVID-19 ICU admissions, limiting sample size.
RCT 60 hospitalized patients in India, showing significantly greater clinical improvement with inhaled sodium bicarbonate.
Nasal and oral inhalation of nebulized 50ml 8.4% sodium bicarbonate for 5 minutes twice daily for 5 days.
Nasal and oral inhalation of nebulized 50ml 8.4% sodium bicarbonate for 5 minutes twice daily for 5 days.
RCT 56 severe COVID-19 patients, showing significantly decreased viral load with Sinomarin Plus Algae nasal irrigation. Sinomarin Plus Algae is a hypertonic seawater solution with algal and herbal natural ingredients with a pH of 7.5-8104.
The treatment group received nasal irrigation every 4 hours, 16 hours per day, for 2 days. Nasopharyngeal swabs were taken at baseline and 48 hours later to measure viral load. The treatment group showed a significant increase in cycle threshold values, indicating decreased viral load, while no difference was seen in the control group. The treatment was well tolerated with only mild adverse effects.
Alkalinization is one possible mechanism of action - SARS-CoV-2 requires acidic pH for infection1 and the solution has pH 7.5-8. Other possible mechanisms include antiviral activity of ingredients (e.g., fucoidan from Undaria pinnatifida) and physical removal of viral particles.
The treatment group received nasal irrigation every 4 hours, 16 hours per day, for 2 days. Nasopharyngeal swabs were taken at baseline and 48 hours later to measure viral load. The treatment group showed a significant increase in cycle threshold values, indicating decreased viral load, while no difference was seen in the control group. The treatment was well tolerated with only mild adverse effects.
Alkalinization is one possible mechanism of action - SARS-CoV-2 requires acidic pH for infection1 and the solution has pH 7.5-8. Other possible mechanisms include antiviral activity of ingredients (e.g., fucoidan from Undaria pinnatifida) and physical removal of viral particles.
Retrospective 383 hospitalized COVID-19 patients in Argentina showing signifcantly lower mortality and shorter hospital stay with nebulized sodium ibuprofenate compared to 195 contemporaneous controls.
The treatment appears to be the same as detailed in102, which reports a pH of 8.5. Kreutzberger et al. showed that SARS-CoV-2 requires an acidic pH (between 6.2-6.8) for membrane fusion and cell entry, even when the viral spike protein is primed by proteases like TMPRSS2. Efficacy seen here may be more due to alkalinization, which shows more consistent higher efficacy than ibuprofen in studies to date.
Baseline SpO2 was significantly different for the patients on mechanical ventilation at baseline.
The treatment appears to be the same as detailed in102, which reports a pH of 8.5. Kreutzberger et al. showed that SARS-CoV-2 requires an acidic pH (between 6.2-6.8) for membrane fusion and cell entry, even when the viral spike protein is primed by proteases like TMPRSS2. Efficacy seen here may be more due to alkalinization, which shows more consistent higher efficacy than ibuprofen in studies to date.
Baseline SpO2 was significantly different for the patients on mechanical ventilation at baseline.
Analysis of 76 ICU patients in Brazil, 44 treated with bronchoalveolar lavage using 3% sodium bicarbonate, showing significantly lower mortality with treatment.
Bronchoalveolar lavage with 10ml of sodium bicarbonate solution directly into the tube (closed circuit), 500μl for each lung segment, followed by aspiration of the solution, performed every 6 hours for 7 days.
Bronchoalveolar lavage with 10ml of sodium bicarbonate solution directly into the tube (closed circuit), 500μl for each lung segment, followed by aspiration of the solution, performed every 6 hours for 7 days.
RCT 55 mild/moderate patients in China, showing shorter hospitalization with sodium bicarbonate nasal irrigation and oral rinsing. Oral rinse with 5% sodium bicarbonate solution three times daily. Nasal irrigation two times with the solution entering through one nostril and exiting from the other. 30–40mL of solution was used every time and irrigation was performed for at least 30s. Details of randomization are not provided.
RCT 60 outpatients with mild COVID-19 showing improved viral clearance with hypertonic alkaline (pH 9.3) nasal irrigation. All patients received HCQ. The nasal irrigation group had no hospitalizations, while 3 patients in the control group required hospitalization, associated with viral load increase at day 3.
We perform ongoing searches of PubMed, medRxiv, Europe PMC,
ClinicalTrials.gov, The Cochrane Library, Google Scholar, Research
Square, ScienceDirect, Oxford University Press, the reference lists of other
studies and meta-analyses, and submissions to the site c19early.org.
Search terms are alkalinization and COVID-19 or SARS-CoV-2. Automated searches are performed twice daily, with all matches reviewed for inclusion.
All studies regarding the use of alkalinization for COVID-19 that report
a comparison with a control group are included in the main analysis.
This is a living analysis and is updated regularly.
We extracted effect sizes and associated data from all studies.
If studies report multiple kinds of effects then the most serious
outcome is used in pooled analysis, while other outcomes are included in the
outcome specific analyses. For example, if effects for mortality and cases are
both reported, the effect for mortality is used, this may be different to the
effect that a study focused on.
If symptomatic
results are reported at multiple times, we used the latest time, for example
if mortality results are provided at 14 days and 28 days, the results at 28
days have preference. Mortality alone is preferred over combined outcomes.
Outcomes with zero events in both arms are not used, the next most serious
outcome with one or more events is used. For example, in low-risk populations
with no mortality, a reduction in mortality with treatment is not possible,
however a reduction in hospitalization, for example, is still valuable.
Clinical outcomes are considered more important than viral test status. When
basically all patients recover in both treatment and control groups,
preference for viral clearance and recovery is given to results mid-recovery
where available. After most or all patients have recovered there is little or
no room for an effective treatment to do better, however faster recovery is
valuable.
If only individual symptom data is available, the most serious symptom has
priority, for example difficulty breathing or low SpO2 is more
important than cough.
When results provide an odds ratio, we compute the relative risk when
possible, or convert to a relative risk according to105.
Reported confidence intervals and p-values were used when available,
using adjusted values when provided. If multiple types of adjustments are
reported propensity score matching and multivariable regression has preference
over propensity score matching or weighting, which has preference over
multivariable regression. Adjusted results have preference over unadjusted
results for a more serious outcome when the adjustments significantly alter
results. When needed, conversion between reported p-values and
confidence intervals followed Altman, Altman (B), and Fisher's exact
test was used to calculate p-values for event data. If continuity
correction for zero values is required, we use the reciprocal of the opposite
arm with the sum of the correction factors equal to 1108.
Results are expressed with RR < 1.0 favoring treatment, and using the risk of
a negative outcome when applicable (for example, the risk of death rather than
the risk of survival). If studies only report relative continuous values such
as relative times, the ratio of the time for the treatment group versus the
time for the control group is used. Calculations are done in Python
(3.13.3) with
scipy (1.15.3), pythonmeta (1.26), numpy (2.2.5), statsmodels (0.14.4), and plotly (6.0.1).
Forest plots are computed using PythonMeta109
with the DerSimonian and Laird random effects model (the fixed effect
assumption is not plausible in this case) and inverse variance weighting.
Results are presented with 95% confidence intervals. Heterogeneity among studies was
assessed using the I2 statistic.
Mixed-effects meta-regression results are computed with R (4.4.0) using the metafor
(4.6-0) and rms (6.8-0) packages, and using the most serious sufficiently powered outcome.
For all statistical tests, a p-value less than 0.05 was considered statistically significant.
Grobid 0.8.2 is used to parse PDF documents.
We have classified studies as early treatment if most patients
are not already at a severe stage at the time of treatment (for example based
on oxygen status or lung involvement), and treatment started within 5 days of
the onset of symptoms. If studies contain a mix of early treatment and late
treatment patients, we consider the treatment time of patients contributing
most to the events (for example, consider a study where most patients are
treated early but late treatment patients are included, and all mortality
events were observed with late treatment patients).
We note that a shorter time may be preferable. Antivirals are typically only
considered effective when used within a shorter timeframe, for example 0-36 or
0-48 hours for oseltamivir, with longer delays not being effective51,52.
We received no funding, this research is done in our spare
time. We have no affiliations with any pharmaceutical companies or political
parties.
A summary of study results is below. Please submit
updates and corrections at https://c19early.org/phmeta.html.
Effect extraction follows pre-specified rules as detailed above
and gives priority to more serious outcomes.
For pooled analyses, the first (most serious) outcome is used, which may
differ from the effect a paper focuses on.
Other outcomes are used in outcome specific analyses.
| de Gabory, 2/20/2024, Randomized Controlled Trial, France, peer-reviewed, 4 authors, study period July 2021 - March 2022, trial NCT04916639 (history) (SeaCare). | risk of progression, 74.9% lower, RR 0.25, p < 0.001, treatment 7 of 82 (8.5%), control 31 of 91 (34.1%), NNT 3.9, day 21. |
| risk of progression, 67.6% lower, RR 0.32, p = 0.003, treatment 7 of 82 (8.5%), control 24 of 91 (26.4%), NNT 5.6, day 14. | |
| risk of progression, 35.3% lower, RR 0.65, p = 0.47, treatment 7 of 82 (8.5%), control 12 of 91 (13.2%), NNT 22, day 7. | |
| recovery time, 24.2% lower, relative time 0.76, p = 0.02, treatment mean 5.0 (±4.1) n=82, control mean 6.6 (±4.8) n=91, time to resume daily activities. | |
| recovery time, 17.0% lower, relative time 0.83, p < 0.001, treatment 82, control 91, all symptoms combined. | |
| recovery time, 25.5% lower, relative time 0.74, p = 0.03, treatment mean 3.5 (±2.8) n=82, control mean 4.7 (±4.2) n=91, dyspnea. | |
| recovery time, 29.5% lower, relative time 0.71, p < 0.001, treatment mean 6.7 (±5.2) n=82, control mean 9.5 (±5.7) n=91, loss of smell. | |
| recovery time, 25.6% lower, relative time 0.74, p = 0.005, treatment mean 6.7 (±5.6) n=82, control mean 9.0 (±5.1) n=91, loss of taste. | |
| recovery time, 13.8% lower, relative time 0.86, p = 0.22, treatment mean 5.6 (±5.0) n=82, control mean 6.5 (±4.6) n=91, post-nasal drip. | |
| recovery time, 10.7% lower, relative time 0.89, p = 0.36, treatment mean 5.0 (±4.7) n=82, control mean 5.6 (±3.9) n=91, facial pain. | |
| recovery time, 1.8% higher, relative time 1.02, p = 0.89, treatment mean 5.6 (±5.0) n=82, control mean 5.5 (±4.6) n=91, sore throat. | |
| recovery time, 25.5% lower, relative time 0.75, p = 0.04, treatment mean 3.8 (±3.5) n=82, control mean 5.1 (±4.6) n=91, chest congestion. | |
| recovery time, 3.3% lower, relative time 0.97, p = 0.78, treatment mean 5.8 (±5.0) n=82, control mean 6.0 (±4.5) n=91, headache. | |
| recovery time, 14.0% lower, relative time 0.86, p = 0.20, treatment mean 4.9 (±3.8) n=82, control mean 5.7 (±4.4) n=91, loss of appetite. | |
| risk of no viral clearance, 36.6% lower, RR 0.63, p = 0.54, treatment 4 of 82 (4.9%), control 7 of 91 (7.7%), NNT 36, day 21. | |
| Yilmaz, 11/19/2021, Single Blind Randomized Controlled Trial, Turkey, peer-reviewed, 8 authors, study period July 2020 - September 2020. | risk of hospitalization, 85.7% lower, RR 0.14, p = 0.24, treatment 0 of 30 (0.0%), control 3 of 30 (10.0%), NNT 10.0, relative risk is not 0 because of continuity correction due to zero events (with reciprocal of the contrasting arm). |
| relative viral load density, 62.0% better, RR 0.38, p = 0.87, treatment median 15.0 IQR 43.0 n=30, control median 39.51 IQR 1085.1 n=30, day 7. | |
| relative viral load density, 42.9% better, RR 0.57, p = 0.95, treatment median 1747 IQR 5863.5 n=30, control median 3058 IQR 145568.9 n=30, day 3. |
Effect extraction follows pre-specified rules as detailed above
and gives priority to more serious outcomes.
For pooled analyses, the first (most serious) outcome is used, which may
differ from the effect a paper focuses on.
Other outcomes are used in outcome specific analyses.
| Calonico, 5/31/2022, retrospective, Argentina, peer-reviewed, 3 authors, study period March 2020 - September 2021, this trial uses multiple treatments in the treatment arm (combined with sodium ibuprofenate) - results of individual treatments may vary. | risk of death, 48.7% lower, RR 0.51, p = 0.01, treatment 1,019, control 3,303. |
| Delić, 5/28/2022, Randomized Controlled Trial, Croatia, peer-reviewed, 12 authors, study period October 2020 - June 2021, trial NCT04755972 (history). | risk of death, 23.0% lower, RR 0.77, p = 0.13, treatment 23 of 42 (54.8%), control 37 of 52 (71.2%), NNT 6.1, ICU mortality. |
| risk of death, 20.1% lower, RR 0.80, p = 0.30, treatment 20 of 42 (47.6%), control 31 of 52 (59.6%), NNT 8.3, 28 day mortality. | |
| El-Badrawy, 11/18/2022, Randomized Controlled Trial, Egypt, preprint, 7 authors, study period 1 September, 2021 - 30 April, 2022, trial NCT05035524 (history). | risk of death, 23.2% lower, RR 0.77, p = 0.26, treatment 32 of 272 (11.8%), control 42 of 274 (15.3%), NNT 28, all cases. |
| risk of death, 54.8% lower, RR 0.45, p = 0.02, treatment 12 of 247 (4.9%), control 27 of 251 (10.8%), NNT 17, mild/moderate/severe cases. | |
| risk of death, 79.2% lower, RR 0.21, p = 0.21, treatment 1 of 125 (0.8%), control 5 of 130 (3.8%), NNT 33, moderate cases. | |
| risk of death, 53.2% lower, RR 0.47, p = 0.02, treatment 11 of 63 (17.5%), control 22 of 59 (37.3%), NNT 5.0, severe cases. | |
| risk of death, 22.7% higher, RR 1.23, p = 0.33, treatment 20 of 25 (80.0%), control 15 of 23 (65.2%), critical cases. | |
| recovery time, 27.6% lower, relative time 0.72, p < 0.001, treatment mean 4.2 (±2.5) n=272, control mean 5.8 (±3.1) n=274, time to clinical improvement. | |
| CT score, 33.3% lower, RR 0.67, p = 0.001, treatment 238, control 229, CT score, day 30. | |
| El-Badrawy (B), 6/12/2022, prospective, Egypt, peer-reviewed, 7 authors, study period 15 April, 2020 - 31 August, 2020, trial NCT04374591 (history). | risk of death, 56.7% lower, RR 0.43, p = 0.37, treatment 3 of 127 (2.4%), control 3 of 55 (5.5%), NNT 32. |
| risk of progression, 39.4% lower, RR 0.61, p = 0.52, treatment 7 of 127 (5.5%), control 5 of 55 (9.1%), NNT 28, deterioration or death, day 30. | |
| risk of no recovery, 19.2% lower, RR 0.81, p = 0.03, treatment 84 of 127 (66.1%), control 45 of 55 (81.8%), NNT 6.4, day 30. | |
| relative CT score, 72.7% better, RR 0.27, p < 0.001, treatment 127, control 55, day 30. | |
| recovery time, 66.2% lower, relative time 0.34, p < 0.001, treatment mean 3.31 (±0.99) n=127, control mean 9.79 (±6.29) n=55, time to clinical improvement. | |
| Kalayan, 12/31/2022, retrospective, Argentina, peer-reviewed, 10 authors, study period June 2020 - September 2020, this trial uses multiple treatments in the treatment arm (combined with sodium ibuprofenate) - results of individual treatments may vary. | risk of death, 79.1% lower, RR 0.21, p < 0.001, treatment 3 of 37 (8.1%), control 24 of 62 (38.7%), NNT 3.3. |
| Lumlertgul, 3/7/2025, Randomized Controlled Trial, United Kingdom, peer-reviewed, median age 48.0, 6 authors, study period July 2021 - January 2022, trial NCT04655716 (history). | risk of death, 66.7% lower, RR 0.33, p = 0.57, treatment 1 of 8 (12.5%), control 3 of 8 (37.5%), NNT 4.0, day 60. |
| AKI, 40.0% lower, RR 0.60, p = 0.62, treatment 3 of 8 (37.5%), control 5 of 8 (62.5%), NNT 4.0. | |
| Mody, 3/19/2021, Randomized Controlled Trial, India, peer-reviewed, 1 author, study period July 2020 - September 2020, trial CTRI/2020/07/026535. | risk of no improvement, 63.6% lower, RR 0.36, p < 0.001, treatment 8 of 30 (26.7%), control 22 of 30 (73.3%), NNT 2.1. |
| Pantazopoulos, 7/3/2023, Single Blind Randomized Controlled Trial, Greece, peer-reviewed, mean age 63.6, 7 authors, study period June 2022 - December 2022, average treatment delay 9.5 days, trial NCT05729204 (history). | risk of death, 66.7% lower, RR 0.33, p = 1.00, treatment 0 of 28 (0.0%), control 1 of 28 (3.6%), NNT 28, relative risk is not 0 because of continuity correction due to zero events (with reciprocal of the contrasting arm). |
| risk of ICU admission, 66.7% lower, RR 0.33, p = 1.00, treatment 0 of 28 (0.0%), control 1 of 28 (3.6%), NNT 28, relative risk is not 0 because of continuity correction due to zero events (with reciprocal of the contrasting arm). | |
| risk of oxygen therapy, 80.0% lower, RR 0.20, p = 0.49, treatment 0 of 28 (0.0%), control 2 of 28 (7.1%), NNT 14, relative risk is not 0 because of continuity correction due to zero events (with reciprocal of the contrasting arm), high flow nasal cannula or non-invasive ventilation. | |
| risk of no viral clearance, 42.1% lower, RR 0.58, p = 0.04, treatment 11 of 28 (39.3%), control 19 of 28 (67.9%), NNT 3.5. | |
| Salva, 8/30/2021, retrospective, Argentina, peer-reviewed, 26 authors, study period 4 April, 2020 - 31 October, 2020, this trial uses multiple treatments in the treatment arm (combined with sodium ibuprofenate) - results of individual treatments may vary, trial NCT04382768 (history). | risk of death, 45.2% lower, RR 0.55, p = 0.009, treatment 35 of 327 (10.7%), control 34 of 174 (19.5%), NNT 11, patients not on mechanical ventilation at baseline. |
| risk of death, 75.7% lower, RR 0.24, p < 0.001, treatment 11 of 56 (19.6%), control 17 of 21 (81.0%), NNT 1.6, patients on mechanical ventilation at baseline. | |
| hospitalization time, 13.5% lower, relative time 0.86, p < 0.001, treatment mean 11.5 (±0.3) n=327, control mean 13.3 (±0.9) n=174, patients not on mechanical ventilation at baseline. | |
| hospitalization time, 17.8% lower, relative time 0.82, p < 0.001, treatment mean 14.8 (±1.4) n=56, control mean 18.0 (±5.6) n=21, patients on mechanical ventilation at baseline. | |
| Soares, 12/29/2021, prospective, Brazil, peer-reviewed, 17 authors, study period December 2020 - May 2021. | risk of death, 75.8% lower, RR 0.24, p < 0.001, treatment 6 of 44 (13.6%), control 18 of 32 (56.2%), NNT 2.3. |
| Wang (B), 3/15/2023, Randomized Controlled Trial, China, peer-reviewed, 13 authors. | hospitalization time, 38.5% lower, relative time 0.61, p < 0.001, treatment mean 7.7 (±4.15) n=23, control mean 12.53 (±5.56) n=32. |
Effect extraction follows pre-specified rules as detailed above
and gives priority to more serious outcomes.
For pooled analyses, the first (most serious) outcome is used, which may
differ from the effect a paper focuses on.
Other outcomes are used in outcome specific analyses.
| Karami, 1/9/2024, Double Blind Randomized Controlled Trial, Iran, peer-reviewed, 4 authors, study period July 2022 - October 2022, trial IRCT20220328054364N1. | relative mean total symptoms, 45.5% better, RR 0.55, p = 0.14, treatment mean 2.52 (±4.99) n=40, control mean 4.62 (±7.37) n=40. |
| relative mean week 1 symptoms, 42.6% better, RR 0.57, p = 0.39, treatment mean 0.7 (±1.84) n=36, control mean 1.22 (±3.14) n=40. | |
| relative mean week 2 symptoms, 42.0% better, RR 0.58, p = 0.27, treatment mean 0.87 (±2.26) n=36, control mean 1.5 (±2.63) n=40. | |
| relative mean week 3 symptoms, 79.4% better, RR 0.21, p = 0.045, treatment mean 0.2 (±0.72) n=36, control mean 0.97 (±2.16) n=40. | |
| relative mean week 4 symptoms, 18.5% better, RR 0.82, p = 0.77, treatment mean 0.75 (±2.43) n=36, control mean 0.92 (±2.58) n=40. | |
| risk of case, 38.9% lower, RR 0.61, p = 0.16, treatment 11 of 40 (27.5%), control 18 of 40 (45.0%), NNT 5.7. |
Viral infection and replication involves attachment, entry, uncoating and release, genome replication and transcription, translation and protein processing, assembly and budding, and release. Each step can be disrupted by therapeutics.
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