Sargramostim for COVID-19: real-time meta analysis of 4 studies
Abstract
Meta analysis using the most serious outcome reported shows
13% [-31‑85%] higher risk, without reaching statistical significance. Currently all studies are RCTs.
Currently there is limited data, with only 870 patients and only 18 control events for the most serious outcome in trials to date.
All data to reproduce this paper and
sources are in the appendix.
Sargramostim for COVID-19 — Highlights
Sargramostim reduces
risk with low confidence for viral clearance, however increased risk is seen with very low confidence for progression, recovery, and in pooled analysis.
Real-time updates and corrections,
transparent analysis with all results in the same format, consistent protocol
for 104
treatments, outcome specific analyses and combined evidence from all studies.
Figure 1.
A. Random effects
meta-analysis. This plot shows pooled effects,
see the specific outcome analyses for individual outcomes.
Analysis validating pooled outcomes for
COVID-19 can be found below.
Effect extraction is pre-specified, using the most serious outcome reported.
For details see the appendix.
B. Timeline of results in sargramostim studies.
SARS-CoV-2 infection primarily begins in the upper respiratory
tract and may progress to the lower respiratory tract, other tissues, and the
nervous and cardiovascular systems, which may lead to cytokine storm,
pneumonia, ARDS, neurological injury1-11 and
cognitive deficits3,8, cardiovascular
complications12-14, organ failure, and death.
Minimizing replication as early as possible is recommended.
SARS-CoV-2 infection and replication involves the complex interplay of 50+
host and viral proteins and other factorsA,15-20, providing many
therapeutic targets for which many existing compounds have known activity.
Scientists have predicted that over 8,000 compounds may
reduce COVID-19 risk21, either by
directly minimizing infection or replication, by supporting immune system
function, or by minimizing secondary complications.
We analyze all significant
controlled studies of
sargramostim
for COVID-19.
Search methods, inclusion criteria, effect extraction criteria (more serious
outcomes have priority), all individual study data, PRISMA answers, and
statistical methods are detailed in Appendix 1. We present random
effects meta-analysis results for all studies, individual outcomes, peer-reviewed studies, and Randomized Controlled Trials (RCTs).
Figure 2 shows stages of possible treatment for
COVID-19. Prophylaxis refers to regularly taking medication before
becoming sick, in order to prevent or minimize infection. Early
Treatment refers to treatment immediately or soon after symptoms appear,
while Late Treatment refers to more delayed treatment.
Currently all sargramostim studies use late treatment.
Figure 2. Treatment stages.
Table 1 summarizes the results for all studies, for Randomized Controlled Trials, for peer-reviewed studies, and for specific outcomes.
Figure 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, and 10
show forest plots for random effects meta-analysis of
all studies with pooled effects, mortality results, ventilation, hospitalization, progression, recovery, viral clearance, and peer reviewed studies.
| Improvement | Studies | Patients | Authors | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| All studies | -13% [-85‑31%] | 4 | 870 | 81 |
| Peer-reviewed studiesPeer-reviewed | -14% [-89‑32%] | 3 | 789 | 50 |
| Randomized Controlled TrialsRCTs | -13% [-85‑31%] | 4 | 870 | 81 |
| Mortality | 19% [-83‑64%] | 2 | 203 | 45 |
| VentilationVent. | 2% [-89‑49%] | 3 | 270 | 71 |
| RCT mortality | 19% [-83‑64%] | 2 | 203 | 45 |
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Figure 3. Random effects meta-analysis for all studies.
This plot shows pooled effects,
see the specific outcome analyses for individual outcomes.
Analysis validating pooled outcomes for
COVID-19 can be found below.
Effect extraction is pre-specified, using the most serious outcome reported.
For details see the appendix.
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Figure 4. Random effects meta-analysis for mortality results.
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Figure 5. Random effects meta-analysis for ventilation.
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Figure 6. Random effects meta-analysis for hospitalization.
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Figure 7. Random effects meta-analysis for progression.
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Figure 8. Random effects meta-analysis for recovery.
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Figure 9. Random effects meta-analysis for viral clearance.
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Figure 10. Random effects meta-analysis for peer reviewed studies.
Effect extraction is pre-specified, using the most serious outcome reported,
see the appendix for details.
Analysis validating pooled outcomes for
COVID-19 can be found below.
Zeraatkar et al. analyze 356 COVID-19 trials, finding no significant
evidence that preprint results are inconsistent with peer-reviewed studies.
They also show extremely long peer-review delays, with a median of 6 months to
journal publication. A six month delay was equivalent to around 1.5 million
deaths during the first two years of the pandemic. Authors recommend using
preprint evidence, with appropriate checks for potential falsified data, which
provides higher certainty much earlier. Davidson et al. also showed no
important difference between meta analysis results of preprints and
peer-reviewed publications for COVID-19, based on 37 meta analyses including
114 trials.
Currently all studies are RCTs.
Heterogeneity in COVID-19 studies arises from many factors including:
The time
between infection or the onset of symptoms and treatment may critically affect
how well a treatment works. For example an antiviral may be very effective
when used early but may not be effective in late stage disease, and may even
be harmful. Oseltamivir, for example, is generally only considered effective
for influenza when used within 0-36 or 0-48 hours24,25.
Baloxavir marboxil studies for influenza also show that treatment delay is critical
— Ikematsu et al. report an 86% reduction in cases for post-exposure
prophylaxis, Hayden et al. show a 33 hour reduction in the time to
alleviation of symptoms for treatment within 24 hours and a reduction of 13
hours for treatment within 24-48 hours, and Kumar et al. report only 2.5
hours improvement for inpatient treatment.
| Treatment delay | Result |
| Post-exposure prophylaxis | 86% fewer cases26 |
| <24 hours | -33 hours symptoms27 |
| 24-48 hours | -13 hours symptoms27 |
| Inpatients | -2.5 hours to improvement28 |
Figure 11 shows a mixed-effects meta-regression for efficacy
as a function of treatment delay in COVID-19 studies from 104 treatments, showing
that efficacy declines rapidly with treatment delay. Early treatment is
critical for COVID-19.
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Figure 11. Early treatment is more effective. Meta-regression showing efficacy as a function of treatment delay in COVID-19 studies from 104 treatments.
Details of the patient population including age and comorbidities may
critically affect how well a treatment works. For example, many COVID-19
studies with relatively young low-comorbidity patients show all patients
recovering quickly with or without treatment. In such cases, there is little
room for an effective treatment to improve results, for example as in
López-Medina et al.
Efficacy may
depend critically on the distribution of SARS-CoV-2 variants encountered by
patients. Risk varies significantly across variants30, for
example the Gamma variant shows significantly different characteristics31-34. Different mechanisms of action may be
more or less effective depending on variants, for example the degree to which
TMPRSS2 contributes to viral entry can differ across variants35,36.
Effectiveness may depend strongly on the dosage and treatment regimen.
The use
of other treatments may significantly affect outcomes, including supplements,
other medications, or other interventions such as prone positioning.
Treatments may be synergistic37-48, therefore
efficacy may depend strongly on combined treatments.
The
quality of medications may vary significantly between manufacturers and
production batches, which may significantly affect efficacy and safety.
Williams et al. analyze ivermectin from 11 different sources, showing
highly variable antiparasitic efficacy across different manufacturers.
Xu et al. analyze a treatment from two different manufacturers, showing 9
different impurities, with significantly different concentrations for each
manufacturer.
Across all
studies there is a strong association between different outcomes, for example
improved recovery is strongly associated with lower mortality. However,
efficacy may differ depending on the effect measured, for example a treatment
may be more effective against secondary complications and have minimal effect
on viral clearance.
The
distribution of studies will alter the outcome of a meta analysis. Consider a
simplified example where everything is equal except for the treatment delay,
and effectiveness decreases to zero or below with increasing delay. If there
are many studies using very late treatment, the outcome may be negative, even
though early treatment is very effective.
All meta analyses combine heterogeneous studies, varying in population,
variants, and potentially all factors above, and therefore may obscure
efficacy by including studies where treatment is less effective. Generally, we
expect the estimated effect size from meta analysis to be less than that for
the optimal case.
Looking at all studies is valuable for providing an overview of all research,
important to avoid cherry-picking, and informative when a positive result is
found despite combining less-optimal situations. However, the resulting
estimate does not apply to specific cases such as
early treatment in high-risk populations.
While we present results for all studies, we also present treatment time and
individual outcome analyses, which may be more informative for specific use
cases.
For COVID-19, delay in clinical results translates into
additional death and morbidity, as well as additional economic and societal
damage. Combining the results of studies reporting different outcomes is
required.
There may be no mortality in a trial with low-risk patients,
however a reduction in severity or improved viral clearance may translate
into lower mortality in a high-risk population.
Different studies may report lower severity, improved recovery, and lower mortality,
and the significance may be very high when combining the results.
"The studies reported different outcomes"
is not a good reason for disregarding results.
We present both specific outcome and pooled analyses.
In order to combine the results of studies reporting different outcomes we use
the most serious outcome reported in each study, based on the thesis that
improvement in the most serious outcome provides comparable measures of
efficacy for a treatment. A critical advantage of this approach is
simplicity and transparency.
There are many other ways to combine evidence for different outcomes, along
with additional evidence such as dose-response relationships, however these
increase complexity.
Another way to view pooled analysis is that we are using more of
the available information. Logically we should, and do, use additional
information. For example dose-response and
treatment delay-response relationships provide significant additional evidence
of efficacy that is considered when reviewing the evidence for a
treatment.
Trials with high-risk patients may be restricted due to ethics for treatments
that are known or expected to be effective, and they increase difficulty for
recruiting. Using less severe outcomes as a proxy for more serious outcomes
allows faster collection of evidence.
For many COVID-19 treatments, a reduction in mortality logically
follows from a reduction in hospitalization, which follows from a reduction in
symptomatic cases, which follows from a reduction in PCR positivity. We can
directly test this for COVID-19.
Analysis of the the association between different outcomes across studies from
all 104
treatments we cover confirms the validity of pooled outcome analysis for COVID-19.
Figure 12 shows that lower hospitalization is very strongly associated
with lower mortality (p < 0.000000000001).
Similarly, Figure 13 shows that improved recovery is very strongly associated
with lower mortality (p < 0.000000000001).
Considering the extremes, Singh et al. show an association between viral clearance and
hospitalization or death, with p = 0.003 after excluding one large
outlier from a mutagenic treatment, and based on 44 RCTs including 52,384
patients.
Figure 14 shows that improved viral clearance is strongly associated
with fewer serious outcomes. The association is very similar to
Singh et al., with higher confidence due to the larger number of
studies. As with Singh et al., the confidence increases
when excluding the outlier treatment, from p = 0.00000042 to p = 0.00000002.
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Figure 12. Lower hospitalization is associated with lower mortality, supporting pooled outcome analysis.
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Figure 13. Improved recovery is associated with lower mortality, supporting pooled outcome analysis.
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Figure 12. Improved viral clearance is associated with fewer serious outcomes, supporting pooled outcome analysis.
Currently, 48 of the treatments we analyze show statistically significant efficacy or harm, defined as ≥10% decreased risk or >0% increased risk from ≥3 studies. 89% of these have been confirmed with one or more specific outcomes, with a mean delay of 5.1 months. When restricting to RCTs only, 56% of treatments showing statistically significant efficacy/harm with pooled effects have been confirmed with one or more specific outcomes, with a mean delay of 6.4 months.
Figure 15 shows when treatments were found effective during the
pandemic. Pooled outcomes often resulted in earlier detection of efficacy.
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Figure 15. The time when studies showed that
treatments were effective, defined as statistically significant improvement of
≥10% from ≥3 studies.
Pooled results typically show efficacy earlier than specific
outcome results. Results from all studies often shows efficacy much earlier
than when restricting to RCTs.
Results reflect conditions as used in trials to date, these depend on the
population treated, treatment delay, and treatment regimen.
Pooled analysis could hide efficacy, for example a treatment that is
beneficial for late stage patients but has no effect on viral clearance may
show no efficacy if most studies only examine viral clearance. In practice, it
is rare for a non-antiviral treatment to report viral clearance and to not
report clinical outcomes; and in practice other sources of heterogeneity such
as difference in treatment delay is more likely to hide efficacy.
Analysis validates the use of pooled effects and shows significantly faster
detection of efficacy on average.
However, as with all meta analyses, it is important to review the different
studies included. We also present individual outcome analyses, which may be
more informative for specific use cases.
Publishing is often biased
towards positive results. Trials with patented drugs may have a financial conflict of interest that
results in positive studies being more likely to be published, or bias towards more positive results. For example with molnupiravir, trials with negative results remain unpublished to
date (CTRI/2021/05/033864 and CTRI/2021/08/0354242).
For sargramostim, there is currently not
enough data to evaluate publication bias with high confidence.
Summary statistics from
meta analysis necessarily lose information. As with all meta analyses, studies
are heterogeneous, with differences
in treatment delay, treatment regimen, patient demographics, variants,
conflicts of interest, standard of care, and other factors. We provide analyses for specific
outcomes and by treatment delay, and we aim to identify key characteristics in
the forest plots and summaries. Results should be viewed in the context of
study characteristics.
Some analyses classify treatment based on early or late
administration, as done here, while others distinguish between mild, moderate,
and severe cases. Viral load does not indicate degree of symptoms — for
example patients may have a high viral load while being asymptomatic. With
regard to treatments that have antiviral properties, timing of treatment is
critical — late administration may be less helpful regardless of
severity.
Details of treatment delay per patient is often not available.
For example, a study may treat 90% of patients relatively early, but the
events driving the outcome may come from 10% of patients treated very late.
Our 5 day cutoff for early treatment may be too conservative, 5 days may be too late in many cases.
Comparison across treatments is confounded by differences in
the studies performed, for example dose, variants, and conflicts of interest.
Trials with conflicts of interest may use designs better suited to the
preferred outcome.
In some cases, the most serious outcome has very few events,
resulting in lower confidence results being used in pooled analysis, however
the method is simpler and more transparent. This is less critical as the
number of studies increases. Restriction to outcomes with sufficient power may
be beneficial in pooled analysis and improve accuracy when there are few
studies, however we maintain our pre-specified method to avoid any
retrospective changes.
Studies show that combinations of treatments can be highly
synergistic and may result in many times greater efficacy than individual
treatments alone37-48.
Therefore standard of care may be critical and benefits may diminish or
disappear if standard of care does not include certain treatments.
This real-time analysis is constantly updated based on
submissions. Accuracy benefits from widespread review and submission of
updates and corrections from reviewers. Less popular treatments may receive
fewer reviews.
No treatment or intervention is 100% available and
effective for all current and future variants. Efficacy may vary significantly
with different variants and within different populations. All treatments have
potential side effects. Propensity to experience side effects may be predicted
in advance by qualified physicians. We do not provide medical advice. Before
taking any medication, consult a qualified physician who can compare all
options, provide personalized advice, and provide details of risks and
benefits based on individual medical history and situations.
SARS-CoV-2 infection and replication involves a complex interplay of 50+ host
and viral proteins and other factors15-20,
providing many therapeutic targets.
Over 8,000 compounds have been predicted to reduce COVID-19
risk21, either by directly
minimizing infection or replication, by supporting immune system function, or
by minimizing secondary complications.
Figure 16 shows an overview of the results for sargramostim
in the context of multiple COVID-19 treatments, and Figure 17 shows a plot
of efficacy vs. cost for COVID-19 treatments.
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Figure 16.
Scatter plot showing results within the context of multiple COVID-19 treatments.
Diamonds shows the results of random effects meta-analysis.
0.6% of 8,000+ proposed treatments show efficacy52.
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Figure 17. Efficacy vs. cost for COVID-19 treatments.
Meta analysis using the most serious outcome reported shows
13% [-31‑85%] higher risk, without reaching statistical significance. Currently all studies are RCTs.
Currently there is limited data, with only 870 patients and only 18 control events for the most serious outcome in trials to date.
Bosteels:
RCT 81 non-ventilated COVID-19 patients with hypoxemic respiratory failure showing improved oxygenation after 5 days of inhaled sargramostim (rhu-GM-CSF) compared to standard of care. More patients in the sargramostim group experienced at least 25% improvement in oxygenation. Sargramostim treatment also increased circulating class-switched B cells and effector SARS-CoV-2 specific CD8 T cells. There were no significant differences in mortality or clinical scores.
Joshi:
RCT 600 non-hospitalized COVID-19 patients at high risk for progression showing enhanced SARS-CoV-2 viral clearance by day 14 with inhaled sargramostim (rhu GM-CSF) compared to placebo. There was no significant difference in the primary endpoint between groups. The sargramostim group had a different antibody response, with lower IgM titers at day 28 in vaccinated patients and higher IgG4 titers associated with isotype switching. Inflammatory cytokine levels did not increase with treatment.
Paine:
RCT 122 hospitalized COVID-19 patients showing improved oxygenation with inhaled sargramostim (GM-CSF) treatment. There was no significant difference in intubation rate, mortality, or adverse events.
Shimasaki:
RCT 70 hospitalized COVID-19 patients with moderate pneumonia in Japan showing no significant difference in time to clinical improvement with inhaled sargramostim (GM-CSF) vs. placebo. Concomitant corticosteroid dose was not standardized. In a post-hoc analysis of patients who received ≤500mg prednisolone-equivalent corticosteroids over 5 days, sargramostim improved oxygenation and clinical status compared to placebo. Higher corticosteroid doses were associated with delayed recovery. Authors hypothesize that high-dose corticosteroids may impair differentiation of monocytes into mature alveolar macrophages.
We perform ongoing searches of PubMed, medRxiv, Europe PMC,
ClinicalTrials.gov, The Cochrane Library, Google Scholar, Research
Square, ScienceDirect, Oxford University Press, the reference lists of other
studies and meta-analyses, and submissions to the site c19early.org.
Search terms are sargramostim and COVID-19 or SARS-CoV-2. Automated searches are performed twice daily, with all matches reviewed for inclusion.
All studies regarding the use of sargramostim for COVID-19 that report
a comparison with a control group are included in the main analysis.
This is a living analysis and is updated regularly.
We extracted effect sizes and associated data from all studies.
If studies report multiple kinds of effects then the most serious
outcome is used in pooled analysis, while other outcomes are included in the
outcome specific analyses. For example, if effects for mortality and cases are
both reported, the effect for mortality is used, this may be different to the
effect that a study focused on.
If symptomatic
results are reported at multiple times, we used the latest time, for example
if mortality results are provided at 14 days and 28 days, the results at 28
days have preference. Mortality alone is preferred over combined outcomes.
Outcomes with zero events in both arms are not used, the next most serious
outcome with one or more events is used. For example, in low-risk populations
with no mortality, a reduction in mortality with treatment is not possible,
however a reduction in hospitalization, for example, is still valuable.
Clinical outcomes are considered more important than viral test status. When
basically all patients recover in both treatment and control groups,
preference for viral clearance and recovery is given to results mid-recovery
where available. After most or all patients have recovered there is little or
no room for an effective treatment to do better, however faster recovery is
valuable.
If only individual symptom data is available, the most serious symptom has
priority, for example difficulty breathing or low SpO2 is more
important than cough.
When results provide an odds ratio, we compute the relative risk when
possible, or convert to a relative risk according to57.
Reported confidence intervals and p-values were used when available,
using adjusted values when provided. If multiple types of adjustments are
reported propensity score matching and multivariable regression has preference
over propensity score matching or weighting, which has preference over
multivariable regression. Adjusted results have preference over unadjusted
results for a more serious outcome when the adjustments significantly alter
results. When needed, conversion between reported p-values and
confidence intervals followed Altman, Altman (B), and Fisher's exact
test was used to calculate p-values for event data. If continuity
correction for zero values is required, we use the reciprocal of the opposite
arm with the sum of the correction factors equal to 160.
Results are expressed with RR < 1.0 favoring treatment, and using the risk of
a negative outcome when applicable (for example, the risk of death rather than
the risk of survival). If studies only report relative continuous values such
as relative times, the ratio of the time for the treatment group versus the
time for the control group is used. Calculations are done in Python
(3.13.0) with
scipy (1.14.1), pythonmeta (1.26), numpy (1.26.4), statsmodels (0.14.4), and plotly (5.24.1).
Forest plots are computed using PythonMeta61
with the DerSimonian and Laird random effects model (the fixed effect
assumption is not plausible in this case) and inverse variance weighting.
Results are presented with 95% confidence intervals. Heterogeneity among studies was
assessed using the I2 statistic.
Mixed-effects meta-regression results are computed with R (4.4.0) using the metafor
(4.6-0) and rms (6.8-0) packages, and using the most serious sufficiently powered outcome.
For all statistical tests, a p-value less than 0.05 was considered statistically significant.
Grobid 0.8.0 is used to parse PDF documents.
We have classified studies as early treatment if most patients
are not already at a severe stage at the time of treatment (for example based
on oxygen status or lung involvement), and treatment started within 5 days of
the onset of symptoms. If studies contain a mix of early treatment and late
treatment patients, we consider the treatment time of patients contributing
most to the events (for example, consider a study where most patients are
treated early but late treatment patients are included, and all mortality
events were observed with late treatment patients).
We note that a shorter time may be preferable. Antivirals are typically only
considered effective when used within a shorter timeframe, for example 0-36 or
0-48 hours for oseltamivir, with longer delays not being effective24,25.
We received no funding, this research is done in our spare
time. We have no affiliations with any pharmaceutical companies or political
parties.
A summary of study results is below. Please submit
updates and corrections at https://c19early.org/gmmeta.html.
Effect extraction follows pre-specified rules as detailed above
and gives priority to more serious outcomes.
For pooled analyses, the first (most serious) outcome is used, which may
differ from the effect a paper focuses on.
Other outcomes are used in outcome specific analyses.
| Bosteels, 10/13/2021, Randomized Controlled Trial, Belgium, preprint, median age 60.0, 31 authors, trial NCT04326920 (history) (SARPAC). | risk of death, 2.5% higher, RR 1.02, p = 1.00, treatment 2 of 40 (5.0%), control 2 of 41 (4.9%). |
| risk of mechanical ventilation, 19.6% higher, RR 1.20, p = 0.77, treatment 7 of 40 (17.5%), control 6 of 41 (14.6%). | |
| relative clinical score improvement, 10.0% worse, RR 1.10, p = 0.77, treatment mean 2.0 (±3.1) n=40, control mean 2.2 (±3.0) n=41, day 6. | |
| relative NEWS2 improvement, 33.3% better, RR 0.67, p = 0.77, treatment mean 0.6 (±3.1) n=40, control mean 0.4 (±3.0) n=41, day 6. | |
| relative SOFA improvement, 20.0% better, RR 0.80, p = 0.74, treatment mean 0.5 (±1.5) n=40, control mean 0.4 (±1.2) n=41, day 6. | |
| relative change in P(A-a) gradient, 43.0% better, RR 0.57, p = 0.13, treatment 40, control 41, day 6. | |
| Joshi, 11/27/2023, Double Blind Randomized Controlled Trial, placebo-controlled, USA, peer-reviewed, 10 authors, study period 28 April, 2021 - 31 January, 2022. | ER, hospitalization, or death, 30.4% higher, RR 1.30, p = 0.50, treatment 21 of 301 (7.0%), control 16 of 299 (5.4%). |
| viral load, 27.3% lower, relative load 0.73, p = 0.005, treatment mean 4.4 (±2.06) n=50, control mean 3.2 (±2.16) n=51. | |
| Paine, 12/2/2022, Randomized Controlled Trial, USA, peer-reviewed, mean age 60.4, 14 authors, study period 19 August, 2020 - 17 February, 2021, trial NCT04411680 (history) (iLeukPulm). | risk of death, 23.0% lower, HR 0.77, p = 0.58, treatment 78, control 44, day 90. |
| risk of death, 15.0% lower, HR 0.85, p = 0.76, treatment 78, control 44, day 28. | |
| risk of mechanical ventilation, 27.5% lower, RR 0.73, p = 0.58, treatment 9 of 78 (11.5%), control 7 of 44 (15.9%), NNT 23, day 14. | |
| no improvement in P(A–a)O2, 56.3% lower, RR 0.44, p = 0.04, treatment 10 of 63 (15.9%), control 12 of 33 (36.4%), NNT 4.9. | |
| hospitalization time, 2.5% higher, relative time 1.03, p = 0.86, treatment mean 12.1 (±9.4) n=78, control mean 11.8 (±8.6) n=44. | |
| Shimasaki, 9/20/2023, Double Blind Randomized Controlled Trial, placebo-controlled, Japan, peer-reviewed, mean age 54.7, 26 authors, study period 8 February, 2021 - 25 October, 2021, trial NCT04642950 (history). | risk of mechanical ventilation, 304.5% higher, RR 4.05, p = 0.54, treatment 2 of 44 (4.5%), control 0 of 23 (0.0%), continuity correction due to zero event (with reciprocal of the contrasting arm). |
| risk of no hospital discharge, 56.8% higher, RR 1.57, p = 1.00, treatment 3 of 44 (6.8%), control 1 of 23 (4.3%). | |
| time to clinical improvement, 12.5% higher, relative time 1.12, p = 0.10, treatment 47, control 23. |
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