COVID-19 treatment: real-time analysis of 6,213 studies
COVID-19 involves the interplay of 300+ viral and host proteins and factors, providing many therapeutic targets.
c19early analyzes 6,200+ studies for 180 treatments—over 17 million hours of research.
US authorities recommend only three high-profit early treatments.
In reality, many treatments reduce risk,
with 25 low-cost treatments approved across 163 countries.
0.5% of 10,000+ proposed treatments show reduced risk.
Treatment to the primary source of initial infection reduces progression and transmission.
Exercise, sunlight, a healthy diet, and good sleep all reduce risk.
Vitamins A, C, D, and zinc show reduced risk, as with other viruses.
Methods for increasing internal body temperature, comparable to natural fever, enhancing immune system function.
Many systemic agents reduce risk, and may be required when infection progresses beyond the upper respiratory tract.
High-profit systemic agents are also effective, but have greater access and cost barriers.
Highly effective but rarely used—variant dependence, high cost, IV/SC administration.
Increased risk of severe outcomes and mortality.
Increased mortality with longer followup. Increased kidney and liver injury, cardiac disorders.
c19early.org
We do not provide medical advice. No treatment is 100% effective, and all may have side effects. Protocols combine multiple treatments. Consult a qualified physician for personalized risk/benefit analysis.
Timeline for when studies showed efficacy - details and limitations.
0.5% of treatments show efficacy.
Top journals that accept positive studies for low cost treatments:
Nutrients,
Scientific Reports,
PLOS ONE,
International Journal of Infectious Diseases,
Frontiers in Medicine,
Cureus,
more...
Treatment cost times median NNT - details and limitations.
0.5% of treatments show efficacy.
All clinical results for selected treatments. 0.5% of treatments show efficacy.
| Random effects meta-analysis of all studies (pooled effects, all stages). Treatments with ≤3 studies with distinct authors or with <50 control events are shown in grey. Pooled results across all stages and outcomes depend on the distribution of stages and outcomes tested - for example late stage treatment may be less effective and if the majority of studies are late stage this may obscure the efficacy of early treatment. Please see the specific stage and outcome analyses. Protocols typically combine multiple treatments which may be complementary and synergistic, and the SOC in studies often includes other treatments. 0.5% of proposed treatments show efficacy in clinical studies. | |||||
| Random effects meta-analysis of early treatment studies (pooled effects). Treatments with ≤3 studies with distinct authors or with <50 control events are shown in grey. Pooled results across all outcomes are affected by the distribution of outcomes tested, please see detail pages for specific outcome analysis. Protocols typically combine multiple treatments which may be complementary and synergistic, and the SOC in studies often includes other treatments. 0.5% of proposed treatments show efficacy in clinical studies. | |||||
| Random effects meta-analysis of all mortality results (all stages). Treatments with ≤3 studies with distinct authors or with <25 control events are shown in grey. Pooled results across all stages depend on the distribution of stages tested - for example late stage treatment may be less effective and if the majority of studies are late stage this may obscure the efficacy of early treatment. Please see the specific stage analyses. Protocols typically combine multiple treatments which may be complementary and synergistic, and the SOC in studies often includes other treatments. 0.5% of proposed treatments show efficacy in clinical studies. | |||||
| Random effects meta-analysis of early treatment mortality results. Treatments with ≤3 studies with distinct authors or with <25 control events are shown in grey. Protocols typically combine multiple treatments which may be complementary and synergistic, and the SOC in studies often includes other treatments. 0.5% of proposed treatments show efficacy in clinical studies. | |||||
| Random effects meta-analysis of prophylaxis studies (pooled effects). Treatments with ≤3 studies with distinct authors or with <50 control events are shown in grey. Pooled results across all outcomes are affected by the distribution of outcomes tested, please see detail pages for specific outcome analysis. Protocols typically combine multiple treatments which may be complementary and synergistic, and the SOC in studies often includes other treatments. 0.5% of proposed treatments show efficacy in clinical studies. | |||||
| Random effects meta-analysis of prophylaxis mortality results. Treatments with ≤3 studies with distinct authors or with <25 control events are shown in grey. Protocols typically combine multiple treatments which may be complementary and synergistic, and the SOC in studies often includes other treatments. 0.5% of proposed treatments show efficacy in clinical studies. | |||||
| Random effects meta-analysis of long covid results. Treatments with ≤3 studies with distinct authors or with <50 control events are shown in grey. Pooled results across all stages and outcomes depend on the distribution of stages and outcomes tested - for example late stage treatment may be less effective and if the majority of studies are late stage this may obscure the efficacy of early treatment. Please see the specific stage and outcome analyses. Protocols typically combine multiple treatments which may be complementary and synergistic, and the SOC in studies often includes other treatments. 0.5% of proposed treatments show efficacy in clinical studies. | |||||
| Random effects meta-analysis of transmission results. Treatments with ≤3 studies with distinct authors or with <50 control events are shown in grey. Pooled results across all stages and outcomes depend on the distribution of stages and outcomes tested - for example late stage treatment may be less effective and if the majority of studies are late stage this may obscure the efficacy of early treatment. Please see the specific stage and outcome analyses. Protocols typically combine multiple treatments which may be complementary and synergistic, and the SOC in studies often includes other treatments. 0.5% of proposed treatments show efficacy in clinical studies. |
| LATE TREATMENT | ||||
| Physician / Team | Location | Patients | HospitalizationHosp. | MortalityDeath |
| Dr. David Uip (*) | Brazil | 2,200 | 38.6% (850) | 2.5% (54) |
| Dr. Jake Scott (**) | USA | 1,000 | 10.0% (100) | |
| Average | 38.6% | 6.2% | ||
| EARLY TREATMENT PROTOCOLS - 40 physicians/teams | ||||
| Physician / Team | Location | Patients | HospitalizationHosp. | MortalityDeath |
| Dr. Roberto Alfonso Accinelli 0/360 deaths for treatment within 3 days |
Peru | 1,265 | 0.6% (7) | |
| Dr. Mohammed Tarek Alam patients up to 84 years old |
Bangladesh | 100 | 0.0% (0) | |
| Dr. Oluwagbenga Alonge | Nigeria | 310 | 0.0% (0) | |
| Dr. Raja Bhattacharya up to 88yo, 81% comorbidities |
India | 148 | 1.4% (2) | |
| Dr. Flavio Cadegiani | Brazil | 3,450 | 0.1% (4) | 0.0% (0) |
| Dr. Alessandro Capucci | Italy | 350 | 4.6% (16) | |
| Dr. Shankara Chetty | South Africa | 8,000 | 0.0% (0) | |
| Dr. Deborah Chisholm | USA | 100 | 0.0% (0) | |
| Dr. Ryan Cole | USA | 400 | 0.0% (0) | 0.0% (0) |
| Dr. Marco Cosentino earlier treatment results were better |
Italy | 392 | 6.4% (25) | 0.3% (1) |
| Dr. Jeff Davis | USA | 6,000 | 0.0% (0) | |
| Dr. Dhanajay | India | 500 | 0.0% (0) | |
| Dr. Bryan Tyson & Dr. George Fareed | USA | 20,000 | 0.0% (6) | 0.0% (4) |
| Dr. Raphael Furtado | Brazil | 170 | 0.6% (1) | 0.0% (0) |
| Rabbi Yehoshua Gerzi | Israel | 860 | 0.1% (1) | 0.0% (0) |
| Dr. Heather Gessling | USA | 1,500 | 0.1% (1) | |
| Dr. Ellen Guimarães | Brazil | 500 | 1.6% (8) | 0.4% (2) |
| Dr. Syed Haider | USA | 4,000 | 0.1% (5) | 0.0% (0) |
| Dr. Mark Hancock | USA | 24 | 0.0% (0) | |
| Dr. Sabine Hazan | USA | 1,000 | 0.0% (0) | |
| Dr. Mollie James | USA | 3,500 | 1.1% (40) | 0.0% (1) |
| Dr. Roberta Lacerda | Brazil | 550 | 1.5% (8) | 0.4% (2) |
| Dr. Katarina Lindley | USA | 100 | 5.0% (5) | 0.0% (0) |
| Dr. Ben Marble | USA | 150,000 | 0.0% (4) | |
| Dr. Edimilson Migowski | Brazil | 2,000 | 0.3% (7) | 0.1% (2) |
| Dr. Abdulrahman Mohana | Saudi Arabia | 2,733 | 0.0% (0) | |
| Dr. Carlos Nigro | Brazil | 5,000 | 0.9% (45) | 0.5% (23) |
| Dr. Benoit Ochs | Luxembourg | 800 | 0.0% (0) | |
| Dr. Ortore | Italy | 240 | 1.2% (3) | 0.0% (0) |
| Dr. Valerio Pascua one patient already on oxygen died |
Honduras | 415 | 6.3% (26) | 0.2% (1) |
| Dr. Sebastian Pop | Romania | 300 | 0.0% (0) | |
| Dr. Brian Proctor | USA | 869 | 2.3% (20) | 0.2% (2) |
| Dr. Anastacio Queiroz | Brazil | 700 | 0.0% (0) | |
| Dr. Didier Raoult | France | 8,315 | 2.6% (214) | 0.1% (5) |
| Dr. Karin Ried up to 99yo, 73% comorbidities |
Turkey | 237 | 0.4% (1) | |
| Dr. Roman Rozencwaig patients up to 86 years old |
Canada | 80 | 0.0% (0) | |
| Dr. Vipul Shah | India | 8,000 | 0.1% (5) | |
| Dr. Silvestre Sobrinho | Brazil | 116 | 8.6% (10) | 0.0% (0) |
| Dr. Unknown | Brazil | 957 | 1.7% (16) | 0.2% (2) |
| Dr. Vladimir Zelenko | USA | 2,200 | 0.5% (12) | 0.1% (2) |
| Average | 2.2% | 0.1% | ||
Physicians using early combined treatment protocols had much lower
hospitalization and mortality rates compared with those following guidelines focusing on
late treatment.
Results are subject to selection and ascertainment bias and accurate analysis requires
details of the patient populations and followup, however the results are consistent across
many teams, and consistent with the extensive controlled clinical evidence showing a
significant reduction in risk with many early treatments, and complementary/synergistic
benefits with combined treatments.
(*) Dr. Uip reportedly prescribed early treatment for himself, but not for
patients1.
(**) Dr. Scott reports treating hundreds of patients and losing over a hundred,
but has not provided specific numbers2.
Dr. Scott reports following (and helping create) US guidelines.
| Hart | Mouse study showing benefit with anti-CD44 monoclonal antibodies (KM201 and IM7) in reducing COVID-19 severity through disruption of hyaluronan-CD44.. |
| Modipane | Review of how SARS-CoV-2 manipulates host transcriptional machinery by disrupting key transcription factors including AHR, NRF2, NF-κB, IRFs, HIF-1α.. |
| dos Santos | Post-mortem study of 42 deceased COVID-19 patients in Brazil identifying molecular differences between the first and second pandemic waves that.. |
| Kim | Animal study showing that the anti-eVIM monoclonal antibody hzVSF-v13 provides protection against SARS-CoV-2 infection in Roborovski SH101 hamsters... |
| Arya | In vitro and in silico study showing structural and functional insights into SARS-CoV-2 PLpro regulation by its ubiquitin-like (Ubl) domain. The.. |
| Gao | Review of the SARS-CoV-2 main protease (Mpro) and its dual role in viral replication and immune evasion. Authors demonstrate that Mpro serves as a.. |
| Aloisio | Ex vivo study comparing the viral kinetics, immune response, and cellular damage of six different SARS-CoV-2 strains (B.1.2, WA1, Alpha, Beta, Delta.. |
| Akinbolade | Review of repurposed antiviral medicines for potential pandemic viruses, identifying 196 repurposed technologies from literature and 58 in active.. |
| Jitobaom | Review showing that multiple phosphatidylinositol kinase (PIK) inhibitors have broad-spectrum antiviral activity against SARS-CoV-2 and other.. |
| Guo | 1,406 patients early treatment PSM: 56% lower mortality (p=0.005), 62% lower progression (p<0.0001), and 34% improved viral clearance (p<0.0001) |
| Begum | 424 patients sufficiency: 59% lower PASC (p=0.01) |
| Roth | In vitro study showing that vitamin D-inducible antimicrobial peptide LL-37 binds to multiple SARS-CoV-2 proteins and inhibits viral entry. |
| Mohammed | 645 patients late treatment PSM: 117% longer hospitalization (p<0.0001) and 58% worse results (p=0.01) |
| Kim | Animal study showing that the anti-eVIM monoclonal antibody hzVSF-v13 provides protection against SARS-CoV-2 infection in Roborovski SH101 hamsters... |
| Cheng | Retrospective disproportionality analysis of 276,631 COVID-19 adverse event reports from the WHO VigiBase database showing that remdesivir and.. |
| Milewska | In vitro study showing variant-dependent differences in SARS-CoV-2 spike protein activation by host transmembrane serine proteases (TTSPs). Authors.. |
| Deo | RCT 313 outpatients showing that that intramuscular delivery of tixagevimab/cilgavimab is as effective as intravenous administration for viral.. |
| Focosi | Review of treatment-emergent resistance to anti-spike monoclonal antibodies in COVID-19 patients. Monotherapies like bamlanivimab and sotrovimab.. |
| Abayomi Banjo | In vitro and cross-sectional study showing that Artemisia afra and Artemisia annua extracts inhibit TNF-α levels in SARS-CoV-2 infected patients by.. |
| Cheng | Retrospective disproportionality analysis of 276,631 COVID-19 adverse event reports from the WHO VigiBase database showing that remdesivir and.. |
| Maurmann | In vitro study showing that metformin suppresses inflammatory responses in human monocytes exposed to SARS-CoV-2 spike protein subunit 1. |
| Focosi | Review of treatment-emergent resistance to anti-spike monoclonal antibodies in COVID-19 patients. Monotherapies like bamlanivimab and sotrovimab.. |
| Focosi | Review of treatment-emergent resistance to anti-spike monoclonal antibodies in COVID-19 patients. Monotherapies like bamlanivimab and sotrovimab.. |
| Focosi | Review of treatment-emergent resistance to anti-spike monoclonal antibodies in COVID-19 patients. Monotherapies like bamlanivimab and sotrovimab.. |
| Focosi | Review of treatment-emergent resistance to anti-spike monoclonal antibodies in COVID-19 patients. Monotherapies like bamlanivimab and sotrovimab.. |
Recent studies (see the individual treatment pages for all studies):
Oct 14 |
et al., Infectious Diseases and Therapy, doi:10.1007/s40121-025-01228-w | Symptom Alleviation/Resolution and Returns to Usual Health/Activities in Immunocompromised Adults with COVID-19 Treated with Nirmatrelvir-Ritonavir: Results from the EPIC-IC Trial |
| RCT 156 immunocompromised COVID-19 patients comparing 5-day, 10-day, and 15-day paxlovid treatment showing no significant differences. | ||
Oct 14 |
et al., BMC Infectious Diseases, doi:10.1186/s12879-025-11625-8 | Association of Azvudine with severe outcomes among hospitalized patients with COVID-19 during an omicron-dominance period in Wuhan, China: a single-center, retrospective, matched cohort study |
| 56% lower mortality (p=0.005), 62% lower progression (p<0.0001), and 34% improved viral clearance (p<0.0001). Retrospective 1,406 hospitalized COVID-19 patients (703 matched pairs) in China showing significantly lower mortality and mechanical ventilation/ICU admission, and faster viral clearance with azvudine. | ||
Oct 8 |
et al., Journal of Infection and Public Health, doi:10.1016/j.jiph.2025.102987 | Real-world efficacy of oral azvudine in hospitalized patients with COVID-19: A multicenter retrospective cohort study |
| 27% lower mortality (p=0.02), 18% lower ventilation (p=0.06), 21% lower ICU admission (p=0.03), and 20% lower progression (p=0.01). Retrospective 7,216 hospitalized COVID-19 patients in China showing reduced mortality and composite outcomes with azvudine treatment. | ||
Oct 8 |
et al., Open Forum Infectious Diseases, doi:10.1093/ofid/ofaf634 | Longitudinal patient-reported outcome trajectories in Long COVID: Findings from the STOP-PASC Clinical Trial |
| 127% higher progression (p=0.14). Secondary analysis of NCT0557666. RCT 155 adults with long COVID showing no benefit from a 15-day course of paxlovid. Patients with worsening symptoms were more likely to be treated with paxlovid, without statistical significance. | ||
Oct 7 |
et al., Virulence, doi:10.1080/21505594.2025.2568052 | Reduction of extracellular vimentin in blood provides protection against SARS-CoV-2 infection |
| Animal study showing that the anti-eVIM monoclonal antibody hzVSF-v13 provides protection against SARS-CoV-2 infection in Roborovski SH101 hamsters. Authors found that intravenous injection of hzVSF-v13 dramatically improved disease manif.. | ||
Oct 7 |
et al., Discover Social Science and Health, doi:10.1007/s44155-025-00303-4 | The role of diet and micronutrient supplementation in COVID-19 recovery: a cross-sectional survey of Bangladeshi patients |
| Retrospective 384 COVID-19 patients in Bangladesh showing shorter recovery time associated with the use of vitamin C, D, and zinc, balanced diet intake, and normal BMI. | ||
Oct 3 |
et al., Medicine, doi:10.1097/MD.0000000000044501 | Bradycardia associated with remdesivir treatment in coronavirus disease 2019 patients: A propensity score-matched analysis |
| 117% longer hospitalization (p<0.0001) and 58% worse results (p=0.01). Retrospective 645 hospitalized COVID-19 patients in the USA showing higher incidence of bradycardia and longer hospital stay with remdesivir treatment. Mortality was lower, however the reported p-value of <0.001 is not plausible. With 1 d.. | ||
Oct 2 |
et al., Clinical Chemistry, doi:10.1093/clinchem/hvaf086.312 | The Clinical Significance of Zinc to Copper Ratio in the Early Management of COVID-19 and its Association with Disease Severity and Mortality |
| Retrospective 220 hospitalized COVID-19 patients and 220 healthy controls showing that COVID-19 patients had significantly lower zinc levels, and that patients that died had significantly lower zinc levels than surviving patients. | ||
Oct 1 |
et al., International Journal of Medicine in Developing Countries, doi:10.24911/IJMDC.51-1747240075 | Investigating the relationship between vitamin D levels and COVID-19 severity among patients at MNGHA in Saudi Arabia |
| 51% lower hospitalization (p=0.29). Cross-sectional study of 471 COVID-19 patients in Saudi Arabia showing no significant association between vitamin D levels and COVID-19 severity in unadjusted results. | ||
Oct 1 |
et al., Infection and Drug Resistance, doi:10.2147/IDR.S540928 | The Emergence of Escape Mutations in COVID-19 Following Anti-Spike Monoclonal Antibody Treatment: How Do We Tackle It? |
| Review of treatment-emergent resistance to anti-spike monoclonal antibodies in COVID-19 patients. Monotherapies like bamlanivimab and sotrovimab showed very high resistance rates, while combination approaches had lower risk. The rapid evo.. | ||
Sep 30 |
et al., iScience, doi:10.1016/j.isci.2025.113318 | Evolution of the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein in utilizing host transmembrane serine proteases |
| In vitro study showing variant-dependent differences in SARS-CoV-2 spike protein activation by host transmembrane serine proteases (TTSPs). Authors find that all SARS-CoV-2 variants (Wuhan, Alpha, Beta, Gamma, Delta, and Omicron) require .. | ||
Sep 29 |
et al., BMC Infectious Diseases, doi:10.1186/s12879-025-11651-6 | Comparative effectiveness of antiviral treatment on household transmission of SARS-CoV-2: a retrospective cohort study using administrative data |
| Retrospective 5,398 married couples in Japan showing no significant difference in household transmission rates between molnupiravir, ensitrelvir, and paxlovid. Hospitalized patients receiving antivirals showed a trend toward lower transmi.. | ||
Sep 29 |
et al., Journal of Family Medicine and Primary Care, doi:10.4103/jfmpc.jfmpc_2017_24 | Prevalence and risk factors for post-COVID-19 syndrome on medical students in Tabuk, Saudi Arabia-2023-2024 |
| 59% lower PASC (p=0.01). Retrospective 424 medical students in Saudi Arabia showing vitamin D deficiency, diabetes, and bronchial asthma significantly associated with long COVID. | ||
Sep 26 |
et al., Nutrition and Health, doi:10.1177/02601060251378200 | Effectiveness of probiotics on COVID-19 prevention and treatment against mild COVID-19 in outpatient care: A systematic review |
| Systematic review of 8 randomized controlled trials and 1 pre-post study examining probiotics for COVID-19 prevention and treatment in outpatients with mild symptoms, showing lower COVID-19 cases and improved recovery with treatment. | ||
Sep 23 |
et al., Frontiers in Cellular and Infection Microbiology, doi:10.3389/fcimb.2025.1671738 | Vitamin D-inducible antimicrobial peptide LL-37 binds SARS-CoV-2 Spike and accessory proteins ORF7a and ORF8 |
| In vitro study showing that vitamin D-inducible antimicrobial peptide LL-37 binds to multiple SARS-CoV-2 proteins and inhibits viral entry. | ||
Sep 19 |
et al., MDPI AG, doi:10.20944/preprints202509.1594.v1 | Efficacy of Nasal Spray, Mouth Spray, and Mouthwash Containing Limonene, Cetylpyridinium Chloride, and Monolaurin in COVID-19 Management: A Double-Blind, Randomized, Placebo-Controlled Trial |
| 36% improved recovery (p=0.006). RCT 120 low-risk COVID-19 patients showing improved recovery with nasal and oral formulations containing cetylpyridinium chloride, D-limonene, and monolaurin (the nasal formulation contained D-limonene and cetylpyridinium chloride, while .. | ||
Sep 18 |
et al., Medical Sciences, doi:10.3390/medsci13030199 | Association Between Vitamin D Levels and Long COVID Signs and Symptoms |
| 83% lower PASC (p=0.0007). Retrospective 170 outpatients with mild COVID-19 showing higher risk of long COVID with vitamin D deficiency. | ||
We aim to cover the most promising early treatments for
COVID-19. We use pre-specified effect extraction criteria that prioritizes
more serious outcomes, for details see methods. For specific
outcomes and different treatment stages see the individual pages. Not all
treatments are covered here, effectiveness has been reported for many other treatments in studies.
Of the 6,213 studies,
2,888 present results comparing with a control group,
2,662 are treatment studies, and
226 analyze outcomes based on serum levels. There are
127 animal studies,
232 in silico studies,
451 in vitro studies,
500 reviews,
and 250 meta analyses.
References
medicospelavidacovid19.com.br, medicospelavidacovid19.com.br/editoriais/folha-de-s-paulo-revela-numeros-de-david-uip-veja-a-comparacao-com-medicos-que-fazem-tratamento-precoce/.
Please send us corrections, updates, or comments.
c19early involves the extraction of 200,000+ datapoints from
thousands of papers. Community updates
help ensure high accuracy.
Treatments and other interventions are complementary.
All practical, effective, and safe
means should be used based on risk/benefit analysis.
No treatment or intervention is 100% available and effective for all current
and future variants.
We do not provide medical advice. Before taking any medication,
consult a qualified physician who can provide personalized advice and details
of risks and benefits based on your medical history and situation. IMA and WCH
provide treatment protocols.
Thanks for your feedback! Please search before submitting papers and note
that studies are listed under the date they were first available, which may be
the date of an earlier preprint.