COVID-19 treatment: real-time analysis of 6,170 studies
COVID-19 involves the interplay of 250+ viral and host proteins and factors, providing many therapeutic targets.
c19early analyzes 6,100+ studies for 180 treatments—over 17 million hours of research.
US authorities recommend only three high-profit early treatments.
In reality, many treatments reduce risk,
with 25 low-cost treatments approved across 163 countries.
0.5% of 10,000+ proposed treatments show reduced risk.
Treatment to the primary source of initial infection reduces progression and transmission.
Exercise, sunlight, a healthy diet, and good sleep all reduce risk.
Vitamins A, C, D, and zinc show reduced risk, as with other viruses.
Methods for increasing internal body temperature, comparable to natural fever, enhancing immune system function.
Many systemic agents reduce risk, and may be required when infection progresses beyond the upper respiratory tract.
High-profit systemic agents are also effective, but have greater access and cost barriers.
Highly effective but rarely used—variant dependence, high cost, IV/SC administration.
Increased risk of severe outcomes and mortality.
Studies show increased mortality with longer followup.
c19early.org
We do not provide medical advice. No treatment is 100% effective, and all may have side effects. Protocols combine multiple treatments. Consult a qualified physician for personalized risk/benefit analysis.
Timeline for when studies showed efficacy - details and limitations.
0.5% of treatments show efficacy.
Top journals that accept positive studies for low cost treatments:
Nutrients,
Scientific Reports,
PLOS ONE,
International Journal of Infectious Diseases,
Frontiers in Medicine,
Cureus,
more...
Treatment cost times median NNT - details and limitations.
0.5% of treatments show efficacy.
All clinical results for selected treatments. 0.5% of treatments show efficacy.
| Random effects meta-analysis of all studies (pooled effects, all stages). Treatments with ≤3 studies with distinct authors or with <50 control events are shown in grey. Pooled results across all stages and outcomes depend on the distribution of stages and outcomes tested - for example late stage treatment may be less effective and if the majority of studies are late stage this may obscure the efficacy of early treatment. Please see the specific stage and outcome analyses. Protocols typically combine multiple treatments which may be complementary and synergistic, and the SOC in studies often includes other treatments. 0.5% of proposed treatments show efficacy in clinical studies. | |||||
| Random effects meta-analysis of early treatment studies (pooled effects). Treatments with ≤3 studies with distinct authors or with <50 control events are shown in grey. Pooled results across all outcomes are affected by the distribution of outcomes tested, please see detail pages for specific outcome analysis. Protocols typically combine multiple treatments which may be complementary and synergistic, and the SOC in studies often includes other treatments. 0.5% of proposed treatments show efficacy in clinical studies. | |||||
| Random effects meta-analysis of all mortality results (all stages). Treatments with ≤3 studies with distinct authors or with <25 control events are shown in grey. Pooled results across all stages depend on the distribution of stages tested - for example late stage treatment may be less effective and if the majority of studies are late stage this may obscure the efficacy of early treatment. Please see the specific stage analyses. Protocols typically combine multiple treatments which may be complementary and synergistic, and the SOC in studies often includes other treatments. 0.5% of proposed treatments show efficacy in clinical studies. | |||||
| Random effects meta-analysis of early treatment mortality results. Treatments with ≤3 studies with distinct authors or with <25 control events are shown in grey. Protocols typically combine multiple treatments which may be complementary and synergistic, and the SOC in studies often includes other treatments. 0.5% of proposed treatments show efficacy in clinical studies. | |||||
| Random effects meta-analysis of prophylaxis studies (pooled effects). Treatments with ≤3 studies with distinct authors or with <50 control events are shown in grey. Pooled results across all outcomes are affected by the distribution of outcomes tested, please see detail pages for specific outcome analysis. Protocols typically combine multiple treatments which may be complementary and synergistic, and the SOC in studies often includes other treatments. 0.5% of proposed treatments show efficacy in clinical studies. | |||||
| Random effects meta-analysis of prophylaxis mortality results. Treatments with ≤3 studies with distinct authors or with <25 control events are shown in grey. Protocols typically combine multiple treatments which may be complementary and synergistic, and the SOC in studies often includes other treatments. 0.5% of proposed treatments show efficacy in clinical studies. | |||||
| Random effects meta-analysis of long covid results. Treatments with ≤3 studies with distinct authors or with <50 control events are shown in grey. Pooled results across all stages and outcomes depend on the distribution of stages and outcomes tested - for example late stage treatment may be less effective and if the majority of studies are late stage this may obscure the efficacy of early treatment. Please see the specific stage and outcome analyses. Protocols typically combine multiple treatments which may be complementary and synergistic, and the SOC in studies often includes other treatments. 0.5% of proposed treatments show efficacy in clinical studies. | |||||
| Random effects meta-analysis of transmission results. Treatments with ≤3 studies with distinct authors or with <50 control events are shown in grey. Pooled results across all stages and outcomes depend on the distribution of stages and outcomes tested - for example late stage treatment may be less effective and if the majority of studies are late stage this may obscure the efficacy of early treatment. Please see the specific stage and outcome analyses. Protocols typically combine multiple treatments which may be complementary and synergistic, and the SOC in studies often includes other treatments. 0.5% of proposed treatments show efficacy in clinical studies. |
| LATE TREATMENT | ||||
| Physician / Team | Location | Patients | HospitalizationHosp. | MortalityDeath |
| Dr. David Uip (*) | Brazil | 2,200 | 38.6% (850) | 2.5% (54) |
| Dr. Jake Scott (**) | USA | 1,000 | 10.0% (100) | |
| Average | 38.6% | 6.2% | ||
| EARLY TREATMENT PROTOCOLS - 40 physicians/teams | ||||
| Physician / Team | Location | Patients | HospitalizationHosp. | MortalityDeath |
| Dr. Roberto Alfonso Accinelli 0/360 deaths for treatment within 3 days |
Peru | 1,265 | 0.6% (7) | |
| Dr. Mohammed Tarek Alam patients up to 84 years old |
Bangladesh | 100 | 0.0% (0) | |
| Dr. Oluwagbenga Alonge | Nigeria | 310 | 0.0% (0) | |
| Dr. Raja Bhattacharya up to 88yo, 81% comorbidities |
India | 148 | 1.4% (2) | |
| Dr. Flavio Cadegiani | Brazil | 3,450 | 0.1% (4) | 0.0% (0) |
| Dr. Alessandro Capucci | Italy | 350 | 4.6% (16) | |
| Dr. Shankara Chetty | South Africa | 8,000 | 0.0% (0) | |
| Dr. Deborah Chisholm | USA | 100 | 0.0% (0) | |
| Dr. Ryan Cole | USA | 400 | 0.0% (0) | 0.0% (0) |
| Dr. Marco Cosentino earlier treatment results were better |
Italy | 392 | 6.4% (25) | 0.3% (1) |
| Dr. Jeff Davis | USA | 6,000 | 0.0% (0) | |
| Dr. Dhanajay | India | 500 | 0.0% (0) | |
| Dr. Bryan Tyson & Dr. George Fareed | USA | 20,000 | 0.0% (6) | 0.0% (4) |
| Dr. Raphael Furtado | Brazil | 170 | 0.6% (1) | 0.0% (0) |
| Rabbi Yehoshua Gerzi | Israel | 860 | 0.1% (1) | 0.0% (0) |
| Dr. Heather Gessling | USA | 1,500 | 0.1% (1) | |
| Dr. Ellen Guimarães | Brazil | 500 | 1.6% (8) | 0.4% (2) |
| Dr. Syed Haider | USA | 4,000 | 0.1% (5) | 0.0% (0) |
| Dr. Mark Hancock | USA | 24 | 0.0% (0) | |
| Dr. Sabine Hazan | USA | 1,000 | 0.0% (0) | |
| Dr. Mollie James | USA | 3,500 | 1.1% (40) | 0.0% (1) |
| Dr. Roberta Lacerda | Brazil | 550 | 1.5% (8) | 0.4% (2) |
| Dr. Katarina Lindley | USA | 100 | 5.0% (5) | 0.0% (0) |
| Dr. Ben Marble | USA | 150,000 | 0.0% (4) | |
| Dr. Edimilson Migowski | Brazil | 2,000 | 0.3% (7) | 0.1% (2) |
| Dr. Abdulrahman Mohana | Saudi Arabia | 2,733 | 0.0% (0) | |
| Dr. Carlos Nigro | Brazil | 5,000 | 0.9% (45) | 0.5% (23) |
| Dr. Benoit Ochs | Luxembourg | 800 | 0.0% (0) | |
| Dr. Ortore | Italy | 240 | 1.2% (3) | 0.0% (0) |
| Dr. Valerio Pascua one patient already on oxygen died |
Honduras | 415 | 6.3% (26) | 0.2% (1) |
| Dr. Sebastian Pop | Romania | 300 | 0.0% (0) | |
| Dr. Brian Proctor | USA | 869 | 2.3% (20) | 0.2% (2) |
| Dr. Anastacio Queiroz | Brazil | 700 | 0.0% (0) | |
| Dr. Didier Raoult | France | 8,315 | 2.6% (214) | 0.1% (5) |
| Dr. Karin Ried up to 99yo, 73% comorbidities |
Turkey | 237 | 0.4% (1) | |
| Dr. Roman Rozencwaig patients up to 86 years old |
Canada | 80 | 0.0% (0) | |
| Dr. Vipul Shah | India | 8,000 | 0.1% (5) | |
| Dr. Silvestre Sobrinho | Brazil | 116 | 8.6% (10) | 0.0% (0) |
| Dr. Unknown | Brazil | 957 | 1.7% (16) | 0.2% (2) |
| Dr. Vladimir Zelenko | USA | 2,200 | 0.5% (12) | 0.1% (2) |
| Average | 2.2% | 0.1% | ||
Physicians using early combined treatment protocols had much lower
hospitalization and mortality rates compared with those following guidelines focusing on
late treatment.
Results are subject to selection and ascertainment bias and accurate analysis requires
details of the patient populations and followup, however the results are consistent across
many teams, and consistent with the extensive controlled clinical evidence showing a
significant reduction in risk with many early treatments, and complementary/synergistic
benefits with combined treatments.
(*) Dr. Uip reportedly prescribed early treatment for himself, but not for
patients1.
(**) Dr. Scott reports treating hundreds of patients and losing over a hundred,
but has not provided specific numbers2.
Dr. Scott reports following (and helping create) US guidelines.
| Zhang | 436 patient late treatment RCT: 8% improved recovery (p=0.52) and 18% improved viral clearance (p=0.0004) |
| Karpenko | Genetic association study of 1,228 subjects (199 hospitalized COVID-19 patients and 962 controls) examining heat shock protein (HSP) gene variants.. |
| Andronov | In vitro study showing the spatial organization of SARS-CoV-2 proteins and RNA in infected human lung cells using super-resolution microscopy... |
| Polo | 456 patient prophylaxis RCT: 66% fewer symptomatic cases (p=0.68) and 19% fewer cases (p=0.51) |
| Zhang | Review of the coronavirus 3CL protease and its complex interactions with host cellular machinery in viral pathogenesis. Authors detail how this.. |
| Mbambara | Review examining the role of aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AHR) signaling in COVID-19 pathogenesis and its therapeutic potential. |
| Sun | In vitro and mouse study showing that dibenzoylmethane (DBM) broadly inhibits human coronaviruses including SARS-CoV-2 Delta and Omicron variants... |
| Chau | Systematic review of 8 randomized controlled trials and 1 pre-post study examining probiotics for COVID-19 prevention and treatment in outpatients.. |
Recent studies (see the individual treatment pages for all studies):
Sep 29 |
et al., BMC Infectious Diseases, doi:10.1186/s12879-025-11651-6 | Comparative effectiveness of antiviral treatment on household transmission of SARS-CoV-2: a retrospective cohort study using administrative data |
| Retrospective 5,398 married couples in Japan showing no significant difference in household transmission rates between molnupiravir, ensitrelvir, and paxlovid. Hospitalized patients receiving antivirals showed a trend toward lower transmi.. | ||
Sep 26 |
et al., Nutrition and Health, doi:10.1177/02601060251378200 | Effectiveness of probiotics on COVID-19 prevention and treatment against mild COVID-19 in outpatient care: A systematic review |
| Systematic review of 8 randomized controlled trials and 1 pre-post study examining probiotics for COVID-19 prevention and treatment in outpatients with mild symptoms, showing lower COVID-19 cases and improved recovery with treatment. | ||
Sep 19 |
et al., MDPI AG, doi:10.20944/preprints202509.1594.v1 | Efficacy of Nasal Spray, Mouth Spray, and Mouthwash Containing Limonene, Cetylpyridinium Chloride, and Monolaurin in COVID-19 Management: A Double-Blind, Randomized, Placebo-Controlled Trial |
| 36% improved recovery (p=0.006). RCT 120 low-risk COVID-19 patients showing improved recovery with nasal and oral formulations containing cetylpyridinium chloride, D-limonene, and monolaurin (the nasal formulation contained D-limonene and cetylpyridinium chloride, while .. | ||
Sep 18 |
et al., Medical Sciences, doi:10.3390/medsci13030199 | Association Between Vitamin D Levels and Long COVID Signs and Symptoms |
| 83% lower PASC (p=0.0007). Retrospective 170 outpatients with mild COVID-19 showing higher risk of long COVID with vitamin D deficiency. | ||
Sep 16 |
et al., Pharmaceutics, doi:10.3390/pharmaceutics17091205 | A Pilot, Randomised, Placebo-Controlled, Double-Blind Trial of a Single Oral Dose of Ivermectin for Post-Exposure Prophylaxis of SARS-CoV-2 |
| 55% improved recovery (p=0.04) and 47% fewer cases (p=0.03). RCT 68 asymptomatic low-risk adults showing increased symptom-free days and delayed conversion to positive PCR/RAT test with up to 72 hours delayed post-exposure prophylaxis with a single ~200 µg/kg low dose of ivermectin during Omicron d.. | ||
Sep 16 |
et al., Journal of Integrative and Complementary Medicine, doi:10.1177/27683605251379004 | Benefits of Nanocurcumin on Mortality in Patients with COVID-19: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials |
| 53% lower mortality (p=0.02). Systematic review and meta-analysis of six RCTs showing significantly lower COVID-19 mortality with nanocurcumin treatment. | ||
Sep 12 |
et al., Journal of the Chinese Medical Association, doi:10.1097/JCMA.0000000000001294 | Association between vitamin D and COVID-19 infection and mortality in Taiwanese patients |
| 91% lower mortality (p=0.04). Retrospective 481 symptomatic adults in Taiwan showing higher mortality among COVID-19-positive patients with vitamin D deficiency. There was no crude association between vitamin D level and infection risk, however infection was analyzed .. | ||
Sep 11 |
et al., Probiotics and Antimicrobial Proteins, doi:10.1007/s12602-025-10758-1 | Construction of Synthetic Probiotic Bacteria for In Situ Delivery of Anti-SARS-CoV-2 Nanobodies |
| In vitro study showing that genetically modified Lactococcus lactis bacteria expressing anti-SARS-CoV-2 nanobodies can inhibit viral infection by blocking spike protein-ACE2 receptor interaction. | ||
Sep 2 |
et al., JAMA Internal Medicine, doi:10.1001/jamainternmed.2025.4283 | Azelastine Nasal Spray for Prevention of SARS-CoV-2 Infections |
| 72% fewer symptomatic cases (p=0.02), 69% fewer cases (p=0.03), and 34% faster viral clearance (p<0.0001). RCT 450 healthy adults showing lower PCR-confirmed and symptomatic SARS-CoV-2 infections with azelastine 0.1% nasal spray (1 puff/nostril 3x/day for 56 days) versus placebo. The placebo formulation (hypromellose) may also have efficacy vi.. | ||
Sep 2 |
et al., medRxiv, doi:10.1101/2025.08.29.25334732 | Long-term follow-up of treatment comparisons in RECOVERY: a randomised, open-label, platform trial for patients hospitalised with COVID-19 |
| 6-month followup of RECOVERY patients. Results are reported within the respective trials for each treatment. | ||
Sep 1 |
et al., Clinical Infectious Diseases, doi:10.1093/cid/ciaf429 | Effect of Metformin on the Risk of Post-coronavirus Disease 2019 Condition Among Individuals With Overweight or Obese: A Population-based Retrospective Cohort Study |
| 62% lower PASC (p<0.0001). Retrospective 624,308 overweight or obese patients showing reduced risk of post-COVID-19 condition (PCC) with metformin initiation within 90 days of COVID-19 diagnosis. | ||
We aim to cover the most promising early treatments for
COVID-19. We use pre-specified effect extraction criteria that prioritizes
more serious outcomes, for details see methods. For specific
outcomes and different treatment stages see the individual pages. Not all
treatments are covered here, effectiveness has been reported for many other treatments in studies.
Of the 6,170 studies,
2,883 present results comparing with a control group,
2,659 are treatment studies, and
224 analyze outcomes based on serum levels. There are
124 animal studies,
229 in silico studies,
446 in vitro studies,
492 reviews,
and 250 meta analyses.
References
medicospelavidacovid19.com.br, medicospelavidacovid19.com.br/editoriais/folha-de-s-paulo-revela-numeros-de-david-uip-veja-a-comparacao-com-medicos-que-fazem-tratamento-precoce/.
Please send us corrections, updates, or comments.
c19early involves the extraction of 200,000+ datapoints from
thousands of papers. Community updates
help ensure high accuracy.
Treatments and other interventions are complementary.
All practical, effective, and safe
means should be used based on risk/benefit analysis.
No treatment or intervention is 100% available and effective for all current
and future variants.
We do not provide medical advice. Before taking any medication,
consult a qualified physician who can provide personalized advice and details
of risks and benefits based on your medical history and situation. IMA and WCH
provide treatment protocols.
Thanks for your feedback! Please search before submitting papers and note
that studies are listed under the date they were first available, which may be
the date of an earlier preprint.