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c19early.org COVID-19 treatment researchSelect treatment..Select..
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COVID-19 early treatment: real-time analysis of 6,129 studies

 
COVID-19 involves the interplay of over 200 viral and host proteins and factors, providing many therapeutic targets. c19early analyzes over 6,100 studies for 180 treatments—over 17 million hours of research. US authorities believe only three high-profit early treatments reduce risk (remdesivir, paxlovid, molnupiravir). In reality, many treatments reduce risk, and 25 low-cost treatments have been approved across 163 countries. 0.5% of 10,000+ proposed treatments show reduced risk.
Treatment to the primary source of initial infection reduces progression and transmission.
Exercise, sunlight, a healthy diet, and good sleep all reduce risk.
Vitamins A, C, D, and zinc show reduced risk, as with other viruses.
Methods for increasing internal body temperature, comparable to natural fever, enhancing immune system function.
Many systemic agents reduce risk, and may be required when infection progresses beyond the upper respiratory tract.
High-profit systemic agents are also effective, but have greater access and cost barriers.
Highly effective but rarely used—variant dependence, high cost, IV/SC administration.
Increased risk of severe outcomes and mortality.
Studies show increased mortality with longer followup.
c19early.org
We do not provide medical advice. No treatment is 100% effective, and all may have side effects. Protocols combine multiple treatments. Consult a qualified physician for personalized risk/benefit analysis.
$0 $1,000 $2,000+ -25+% 0% 25% 50% Treatment cost (US$) Efficacy vs. cost for COVID-19 treatments +39 more high-profit -ve drugs Glenzocimab -60% >$2,000 Olokizumab -50% >$2,000 PPIs -46% BMS mAbs -36% >$2,000 Darunavir -34% Acetaminophen -28% Cenicriviroc -28% >$2,000 Lufotrelvir >$2,000 Plitidepsin >$2,000 Losartan Sargramostim >$2,000 Cannabidiol Dexamethasone Lopinavir/ritonavir Ravulizumab >$2,000 Conv. Plasma $5,000 Remdesivir $3,120 Sarilumab >$2,000 Ibuprofen Masks Aspirin Tocilizumab Molnupiravir mutagenic/teratogenic Favipiravir Paxlovid Ensitrelvir Famotidine Vitamin C Sotrovimab $2,100 TMPRSS2 i.. Amubarvimab/r.. NAC Azvudine Vilobelimab $6,350 Colchicine Budesonide Probiotics Zinc HCQ Nitric Oxide Antiandro.. Sleep Vitamin A Metformin Tixagevimab/c.. Bebtelovimab H1RAs Sunlight Vitamin D H. Peroxide Exercise Fluvox. Curcumin N. Sativa NaHCO₃ Melatonin Casirivimab/i.. $2,100 Quercetin Bamlanivimab/e.. Ensovibep >$2,000 pH+ PVP-I Diet Regdanvimab $2,100 Thermotherapy Ivermectin Lifestyle / free No prescription Prescription required High-cost Lowerrisk Higherrisk c19early.org September 2025 COVID-19 involves the interplay of 200+ host/viral proteins/factors, modulated by many treatments. 0.5% of 10,000+proposed treatments show efficacy with ≥3 studies.Protocols combine treatments, none are 100% effective.c19early analyzes over 6,100 studies for 180 treatments.
$0 $1,000 $2,000+ -20+% 0% 25% 50% Treatment cost (US$) Efficacy vs. cost for COVID-19 treatments +39 more high-profit -ve drugs Glenzocimab -60% Olokizumab -50% PPIs -46% BMS mAbs -36% Acetaminophen -28% Cenicriviroc -28% Lufotrelvir -22% Plitidepsin Losartan Sargramostim CBD Dexame.. Lopinav.. Vit. B9 Ravulizumab C. Plasma Remdesivir Sarilumab Ibuprofen Masks Aspirin Tocilizumab Molnupiravir mutagenic/teratogenic Favipir.. Paxlovid Famotidine Vitamin C Sotrovimab TMPRSS2 i.. Amubarvimab/r.. NAC Azvudine Vilobelimab Colchicine Budesonide Probiotics Zinc HCQ Nitric Oxide Antiandro.. Sleep Vitamin A Metformin Tixagev.. Bebtelovimab H1RAs Sunlight Vitamin D H. Peroxide Exercise Fluvox. Curcumin N. Sativa NaHCO₃ Melatonin Casirivim.. Quercetin Bamlan.. Ensovibep pH+ PVP-I Diet Regdanvimab Thermotherapy Ivermectin Lifestyle / free No prescription Prescription required High-cost Lowerrisk Higherrisk c19early.org September 2025 COVID-19 involves the interplay of200+ host/viral proteins/factors.0.5% of 10,000+ treatments showefficacy. Protocols combinetreatments. c19early analyzes6,100+ studies for 180 treatments.
c19early.org September 2025 Media censorship for COVID-19 low-cost treatments For low-cost treatments the media selectively covered negative studies Data from Altmetric: studies receiving significant mainstream media coverage from 6,000+ studies for 180 treatments Only 18 positive studies were covered: fluvoxamine (3), HCQ (2), antiandrogens (2), budesonide (2), vitamin D, melatonin, probiotics, ivermectin, cannabidiol, famotidine, curcumin, resveratrol, UDCA 53 negative studies were covered: HCQ (15), ivermectin (7), lopinavir/r.. (5), vitamin D (5), azithromycin (4), zinc (2), vitamin C (2), metformin (2), fluvoxamine (2), indomethacin, colchicine, seleniumprobiotics, vitamin A, ibuprofen, antiandrogens, vitamin B9, cannabidiol 98% of studies showing significantly lower risk were censored: 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024
c19early.org September 2025 C19 media censorship Media censored positive studies Data from Altmetric: studies receiving significant media coverage from 6,000+ studies for 180 treatments For low-cost treatments media covered only 18 positive studies: fluvoxamine (3), HCQ (2), antiandrogens (2), budesonide (2), vitamin D, ... 53 negative studies were covered: HCQ (15), ivermectin (7), lopinavir/r.. (5), vitamin D (5), azithromycin (4), ... 98% of positive studies were censored: 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024
$0 $500 $1,000+ Efficacy vs. cost for COVID-19 treatment protocols c19early.org September 2025 United Kingdom Russia USA Sudan Angola Colombia Kenya Mozambique Pakistan Argentina Vietnam Peru Philippines Spain Brazil Italy France Japan China Uzbekistan Nepal Ethiopia Iran Ghana Mexico South Korea Germany Bangladesh Saudi Arabia Algeria Morocco Yemen Poland India DR Congo Madagascar Thailand Uganda Venezuela Nigeria Egypt Bolivia Taiwan Zambia Fiji Bosnia-Herzegovina Ukraine Côte d'Ivoire Bulgaria Greece Slovakia Singapore Iceland New Zealand Czechia Mongolia Israel Trinidad and Tobago Hong Kong North Macedonia Belarus Qatar Panama Serbia CAR Treatment protocols varied widely. Low-cost treatmentsreduce barriers—especially for early treatment—andprovide complementary/synergistic benefits. More effective More expensive 75% 50% 25% ≤0%
$0 $500 $1,000+ Efficacy vs. cost for COVID-19treatment protocols worldwide c19early.org September 2025 United Kingdom Russia USA Sudan Angola Colombia Kenya Mozambique Pakistan Argentina Vietnam Peru Philippines Spain Brazil Italy France Japan China Uzbekistan Nepal Ethiopia Iran Ghana Mexico South Korea Germany Bangladesh Saudi Arabia Algeria Morocco Yemen Poland India DR Congo Madagascar Thailand Uganda Venezuela Nigeria Egypt Bolivia Taiwan Zambia Fiji Ukraine Côte d'Ivoire Eritrea Bulgaria Greece Slovakia Singapore New Zealand Malawi Czechia Mongolia Israel Trinidad and Tobago North Macedonia Belarus Qatar Panama Serbia Syria Treatment protocols varied widely. Low-cost treatments provide complementaryand synergistic benefits, and reducebarriers—especially for early treatment. More effective More expensive 75% 50% 25% ≤0%
Azelastine SA58 Cetylpyridinium Chloride Azvudine Chlorpheniramine NaCl Tixagevimab/c.. Sodium Bicarbonate Paxlovid Regdanvimab Vitamin B12 Sunlight Phthalocyanine Montelukast Alkalinization Fluvoxamine Famotidine Molnupiravir Quercetin Diet Bamlanivimab/e.. Hydrogen Peroxide TMPRSS2 inhibitors Budesonide Probiotics Casirivimab/i.. Sleep Curcumin Povidone-Iodine Nigella Sativa Tocilizumab Melatonin Antihistamine H1RAs Acetaminophen ↑risk Exercise Vitamin D Antiandrogens Vitamin C PPIs ↑risk Colchicine Ivermectin Metformin Zinc HCQ 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 Pooled outcomes Specific outcome RCT pooled RCT specific Statistically significant ≥10% improvement ≥3 studies c19early.org September 2025 Time when COVID-19 studies showed efficacy
Azelastine SA58 CPC Azvudine Chlorpheniramine NaCl Tixagevimab/c.. Sodium Bicarb.. Paxlovid Regdanvimab Vitamin B12 Sunlight Phthalocyanine Montelukast Alkalinization Fluvoxamine Famotidine Molnupiravir Quercetin Diet Bamlanivimab/e.. Hydrogen Peroxide TMPRSS2 inhibitors Budesonide Probiotics Casirivimab/i.. Sleep Curcumin Povidone-Iodine Nigella Sativa Tocilizumab Melatonin H1RAs Acetaminophen ↑risk Exercise Vitamin D Antiandrogens Vitamin C PPIs ↑risk Colchicine Ivermectin Metformin Zinc HCQ 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 Pooled outcomes Specific outcome RCT pooled RCT specific Statistically significant ≥10% improvement ≥3 studies c19early.org September 2025 Time when COVID-19 studies showed efficacy
Timeline for when studies showed efficacy - details and limitations. 0.5% of treatments show efficacy.
September 2025
c19early.org
Cost per life saved from NNT in
studies to date
Melatonin
11
46%
  $7
Alkalinization
9
46%
  $9
Vitamin D
73
38%
  $10
Zinc
22
30%
  $16
Vitamin C
46
20%
  $18
HCQ
253
27%
  $26
Ivermectin
53
47%
  $26
Colchicine
43
27%
  $31
Aspirin
68
8%
  $45
Vitamin A
5
30%
  $45
Curcumin
8
63%
  $59
Famotidine
21
18%
  $94
Metformin
72
37%
  $121
Quercetin
5
61%
  $127
Probiotics
10
59%
  $172
Antiandrogens
32
37%
  $179
Nigella Sativa
5
57%
  $187
Fluvoxamine
10
44%
  $411
Budesonide
12
26%
  $574
Azvudine
26
29%
  $1,259
Favipiravir
42
6%
  $1,935
Tixagev../c..
10
40%
  $74,506
Regdanvimab
7
63%
  $139,860
Sotrovimab
14
46%
  $299,464
Bamlaniv../e..
13
54%
  $301,549
Casirivimab/..
11
19%
  $452,469
Bebtelovimab
4
60%
  $737,601
Remdesivir
67
1%
  $1,558,440
Paxlovid
41
22%
  $1,901,782
Molnupiravir
27
13%
  $2,400,867
Conv. Plasma
55
-2%
N/A
Acetaminophen
14
-24%
N/A
PPIs
20
-40%
N/A
Brensocatib
1
-41%
N/A
Treatment cost times median NNT - details and limitations. 0.5% of treatments show efficacy.
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All clinical results for selected treatments. 0.5% of treatments show efficacy.
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0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 Age-adjusted cumulativeexcess deaths per million Cumulative excess mortalityduring the COVID-19 pandemic c19early.org September 2025 2020 2021 2022 Omicron becamedominant worldwide Although available, noeffective interventionswere widely adopted Data from Our World in Data, see https://c19early.org/excess.html
0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1 1.25 1.5 1.75 2+ Cetylpyridin.. 83% [6-97%] 3 $1 94 very limited data Cost Studies Patients Improvement Relative Risk Iota-carragee.. 80% [22-95%] 1 $1 394 very limited data Proxalutamide 78% [70-83%] 4 $500 1K limited data Indomethacin 74% [-20-94%] 4 $5 605 limited data Chlorhexidine 71% [57-80%] 5 $1 722 limited data SA58 67% [17-87%] 3 $700 4K limited data Sentinox 67% [-83-94%] 1 $25 57 very limited data Olgotrelvir 67% [-718-99%] 1 $1,000 1K very limited data Mebendazole 62% [12-83%] 3 $1 411 very limited data Ivermectin 60% [52-67%] 105 $1 220K Chlorphenira.. 56% [46-64%] 3 $5 806 very limited data Thermotherapy 56% [9-78%] 4 $0 217 very limited data Regdanvimab 55% [30-72%] 12 $2,100 7K Diet 51% [42-58%] 30 $0 690K Povidone-Iod.. 49% [38-58%] 22 $1 3K Alkalinization 49% [36-59%] 14 $1 6K HH-120 49% [-60-84%] 2 $500 345 very limited data Ensovibep 47% [-108-87%] 2 $2,100 885 limited data Bamlaniv../e.. 47% [25-62%] 21 $1,250 30K variant dependent Quercetin 46% [20-64%] 12 $5 1K Casirivimab/i.. 45% [26-59%] 34 $2,100 50K variant dependent Resveratrol 44% [-4-70%] 3 $1 360 limited data Adintrevimab 43% [-169-88%] 2 $2,100 2K intramuscular Melatonin 43% [31-53%] 20 $1 15K Bromhexine 43% [-5-69%] 7 $5 875 very limited data Sodium Bicar.. 43% [23-58%] 6 $1 1K Nigella Sativa 43% [24-57%] 14 $5 3K Propolis 41% [-13-69%] 3 $1 410 very limited data Curcumin 41% [30-50%] 28 $5 15K Fluvoxamine 39% [21-52%] 21 $4 30K Montelukast 39% [14-56%] 9 $2 2K limited data Exercise 39% [33-44%] 68 $0 1M Hydrogen Per.. 39% [6-60%] 8 $1 847 very limited data Azelastine 39% [0-62%] 4 $5 760 very limited data Vitamin D 38% [33-43%] 126 $1 190K Phthalocyan.. 38% [20-51%] 4 $5 5K Xiannuoxin 38% [-46-73%] 2 $106 1K very limited data Sunlight 37% [22-50%] 5 $0 19K H1RAs 37% [22-50%] 17 $5 70K Nitazoxanide 35% [-8-61%] 14 $4 3K Selenium 34% [-40-69%] 4 $1 21K Bebtelovimab 34% [-24-65%] 6 $1,200 13K intravenous Tixagev../c.. 34% [11-51%] 19 $855 30K variant dependent Artemisinin 34% [11-51%] 3 $1 217 very limited data Metformin 32% [28-35%] 107 $10 350K Bemnifosbuvir 32% [-74-73%] 4 $500 2K very limited data Vitamin A 31% [11-47%] 15 $2 22K Sleep 31% [23-39%] 16 $0 420K Spironolactone 31% [15-44%] 12 $5 28K Antiandrogens 30% [21-38%] 49 $5 120K Nafamostat 30% [10-46%] 7 $1 16K very limited data Vitamin B12 30% [5-48%] 4 $1 11K Nitric Oxide 30% [1-50%] 13 $11 2K Hydroxychlor.. 28% [25-31%] 424 $1 590K Zinc 28% [18-36%] 47 $1 50K Niclosamide 28% [9-43%] 7 $50 2K very limited data Probiotics 28% [18-36%] 28 $5 19K Budesonide 28% [18-36%] 15 $4 28K Colchicine 27% [18-35%] 57 $1 30K Ibuzatrelvir 27% [15-38%] 1 $1,390 126 very limited data Andrograph.. 27% [-8-50%] 7 $5 1K Vilobelimab 26% [-4-48%] 1 $6,350 368 intravenous Azvudine 25% [17-33%] 37 $25 40K N-acetylcys.. 25% [14-35%] 24 $1 26K Amubarv../r.. 25% [-70-66%] 4 $1,380 1K intravenous Lactoferrin 24% [-24-53%] 8 $5 1K NaCl 23% [9-36%] 9 $0 1K TMPRSS2 inh. 23% [10-33%] 29 $5 19K Sotrovimab 22% [10-32%] 28 $2,100 50K variant dependent Vitamin C 21% [15-28%] 75 $1 80K Leritrelvir 21% [3-35%] 2 $88 1K very limited data UDCA 19% [-3-36%] 21 $15 40K Camostat 18% [-3-34%] 16 $1 2K SNS812 17% [4-29%] 1 $1,000 90 very limited data Famotidine 17% [8-24%] 30 $5 110K Ensitrelvir 14% [2-25%] 7 $500 4K very limited data Vitamin K 14% [0-25%] 2 $1 7K very limited data Paxlovid 13% [9-17%] 82 $1,390 160K independent trials refused Atilotrelvir 13% [1-23%] 1 $65 1K very limited data Deuremidevir 11% [-1-21%] 2 $112 1K very limited data Favipiravir 10% [2-17%] 75 $20 30K worse w/longer followup Molnupiravir 9% [2-16%] 51 $707 180K mutagenic/teratogenic Tocilizumab 8% [-6-21%] 47 $2,000 21K Aspirin 8% [2-13%] 79 $1 180K Empagliflozin 4% [-11-16%] 1 $300 4K very limited data Masks 2% [-25-24%] 4 $5 350K Ibuprofen 0% [-9-9%] 13 $1 50K Acebilustat 0% [-1462-94%] 1 $2,000 120 very limited data Levilimab 0% [-289-74%] 1 $2,000 206 subcutaneous Vidofludimus 0% [-597-86%] 1 $2,000 220 very limited data Verapamil 0% [-379-79%] 1 $5 144 very limited data iC1e/K 0% [-1287-93%] 1 $10,000 20 intravenous Adalimumab 0% [-268-73%] 1 $1,000 68 very limited data Zunsemetinib 0% [-1287-93%] 1 $1,000 20 very limited data Sarilumab -0% [-21-17%] 11 $2,000 2K intravenous/subcutaneous Pomotrelvir -1% [-104-50%] 1 $1,390 230 very limited data Remdesivir -2% [-11-6%] 81 $3,120 200K worse w/longer followup Conv. Plasma -2% [-6-2%] 57 $5,000 30K intravenous Vadadustat -3% [-89-44%] 1 $596 448 very limited data Apremilast -3% [-42-25%] 2 $2,000 594 limited data DFV890 -3% [-159-59%] 1 $2,000 142 very limited data Dimethyl fum.. -3% [-48-29%] 1 $20 713 very limited data rhu-pGSN -3% [-587-84%] 1 $5,000 61 intravenous Aviptadil -5% [-74-37%] 3 $1,000 775 limited data Interleukin-2 -5% [-36-19%] 2 $2,100 94 intravenous Nicotine -5% [-50-26%] 1 $20 213 very limited data Ravulizumab -5% [-45-24%] 2 $2,000 481 intravenous HuMax-IL8 -6% [-147-54%] 1 $10,000 43 intravenous Lanadelumab -7% [-135-52%] 1 $10,000 55 very limited data Vitamin B9 -8% [-41-18%] 12 $1 50K CK0802 -8% [-257-67%] 1 $5,000 30 intravenous Plasma-activ.. -9% [-234-64%] 1 $100 23 very limited data Ibrutinib -9% [-1541-93%] 1 $9,000 46 very limited data FX06 -10% [-156-53%] 1 $10,000 49 intravenous Razuprotafib -10% [-116-44%] 2 $2,000 134 subcutaneous Gimsilumab -10% [-80-30%] 1 $2,000 225 intravenous Lopinavir/r.. -11% [-28-4%] 17 $50 15K Dexamethas.. -11% [-29-4%] 13 $1 13K Gabapentin -11% [-32-6%] 1 $10 129 very limited data Dornase alfa -12% [-87-34%] 3 $2,000 242 very limited data Cannabidiol -13% [-81-30%] 11 $25 18K Sargramostim -13% [-85-31%] 4 $2,000 870 very limited data Brexanolone -14% [-129-43%] 1 $34,000 28 very limited data Peg.. Lambda -15% [-107-36%] 5 $500 2K subcutaneous Losartan -15% [-127-42%] 5 $5 665 very limited data Pentoxifylline -15% [-363-71%] 3 $50 178 very limited data Dolutegravir -15% [-71-22%] 2 $130 1K intravenous Plitidepsin -16% [-356-71%] 2 $2,000 163 intravenous MAS825 -16% [-83-26%] 1 $5,000 138 intravenous Trimodulin -17% [-116-37%] 1 $2,000 166 intravenous Amantadine -19% [-167-47%] 3 $10 527 very limited data Silymarin -20% [-302-64%] 1 $5 50 very limited data Metronidazole -20% [-677-81%] 1 $5 44 very limited data Lufotrelvir -22% [-198-50%] 1 $2,000 58 intravenous Pacritinib -28% [-210-47%] 1 $2,000 200 very limited data Cenicriviroc -28% [-66-1%] 3 $2,000 1K limited data Acetaminoph.. -28% [-41--17%] 27 $1 540K Crizanlizumab -29% [-103-18%] 2 $2,500 463 intravenous Cyproheptadine -30% [-133-27%] 2 $10 136 very limited data Belnacasan -34% [-129-22%] 1 $1,000 31 very limited data Darunavir -34% [-120-18%] 5 $40 2K very limited data BMS mAbs -36% [-492-69%] 1 $2,100 210 subcutaneous Domperidone -36% [-123-17%] 1 $10 173 very limited data Atovaquone -39% [-526-69%] 1 $50 60 very limited data GB0139 -40% [-449-64%] 1 $2,000 41 very limited data Brensocatib -41% [-88--6%] 1 $2,000 404 very limited data Danicopan -43% [-168-24%] 1 $2,000 201 very limited data XAV-19 -45% [-221-35%] 2 $2,000 667 intravenous PPIs -46% [-67--28%] 40 $5 220K Beta-glucans -49% [-823-76%] 2 $25 64 very limited data Olokizumab -50% [-309-45%] 1 $2,000 248 subcutaneous Ixekizumab -50% [-681-71%] 1 $5,000 32 subcutaneous Edaravone -50% [-699-72%] 1 $5,000 38 intravenous TRV027 -54% [-202-22%] 2 $2,000 318 intravenous Glenzocimab -60% [-236-24%] 1 $2,000 62 intravenous Siltuximab -64% [-252-23%] 1 $2,000 149 intravenous rNAPc2 -65% [-304-32%] 1 $3,000 156 subcutaneous Avdoralimab -68% [-226-13%] 1 $2,000 207 intravenous Cytokine Adsor.. -72% [-545-54%] 2 $5,000 83 very limited data Zafirlukast -100% [-1933-80%] 1 $5 40 very limited data Estetrol -102% [-683-48%] 1 $50 171 very limited data Amiodarone -103% [-680-47%] 1 $10 143 very limited data Varespladib -120% [-4351-89%] 1 $1,000 18 very limited data Posaconazole -131% [-200--78%] 1 $2,000 249 very limited data Emvododstat -132% [-628-26%] 1 $2,000 187 very limited data Goflikicept -135% [-492-7%] 1 $2,000 247 subcutaneous YKYY017 -150% [-5977-90%] 1 $500 239 very limited data Pemivibart -150% [-6014-90%] 1 $5,775 477 intravenous Donidalorsen -151% [-602-11%] 1 $2,000 103 intravenous/subcutaneous Mefenamic Acid -189% [-6566-87%] 1 $50 36 very limited data Baloxavir -200% [-6491-86%] 1 $200 20 very limited data Zenuzolac -200% [-2732-68%] 1 $500 90 very limited data Ammonium Ch.. -202% [-1506-43%] 1 $10 120 very limited data Astodrimer So.. -205% [-7302-87%] 1 $10 197 very limited data Hesperidin -209% [-2820-67%] 1 $5 211 very limited data Sipavibart -241% [-1161-8%] 2 $2,000 2K intramuscular LSALT peptide -407% [-10036-75%] 1 $2,000 61 intravenous Clevudine -744% [-14450-51%] 1 $10 61 very limited data All studies (pooled effects, all stages) c19early.org September 2025 Favors treatment Favors control
0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1 1.25 1.5 1.75 2+ Cetylpyridin.. 83% 3 very limited data Studies, Improvement Relative Risk Iota-carragee.. 80% 1 very limited data Proxalutamide 78% 4 limited data Indomethacin 74% 4 limited data Chlorhexidine 71% 5 limited data SA58 67% 3 limited data Sentinox 67% 1 very limited data Olgotrelvir 67% 1 very limited data Mebendazole 62% 3 very limited data Ivermectin 60% 105 Chlorphenira.. 56% 3 very limited data Thermotherapy 56% 4 very limited data Regdanvimab 55% 12 Diet 51% 30 Povidone-Iod.. 49% 22 Alkalinization 49% 14 HH-120 49% 2 very limited data Ensovibep 47% 2 limited data Bamlaniv../e.. 47% 21 variant dependent Quercetin 46% 12 Casirivimab/.. 45% 34 variant dependent Resveratrol 44% 3 limited data Adintrevimab 43% 2 intramuscular Melatonin 43% 20 Bromhexine 43% 7 very limited data Sodium Bicar.. 43% 6 Nigella Sativa 43% 14 Propolis 41% 3 very limited data Curcumin 41% 28 Fluvoxamine 39% 21 Montelukast 39% 9 limited data Exercise 39% 68 Hydrogen Per.. 39% 8 very limited data Azelastine 39% 4 very limited data Vitamin D 38% 126 Phthalocyan.. 38% 4 Xiannuoxin 38% 2 very limited data Sunlight 37% 5 H1RAs 37% 17 Nitazoxanide 35% 14 Selenium 34% 4 Bebtelovimab 34% 6 intravenous Tixagev../c.. 34% 19 variant dependent Artemisinin 34% 3 very limited data Metformin 32% 107 Bemnifosbuvir 32% 4 very limited data Vitamin A 31% 15 Sleep 31% 16 Spironolactone 31% 12 Antiandrogens 30% 49 Nafamostat 30% 7 very limited data Vitamin B12 30% 4 Nitric Oxide 30% 13 Hydroxychlor.. 28% 424 Zinc 28% 47 Niclosamide 28% 7 very limited data Probiotics 28% 28 Budesonide 28% 15 Colchicine 27% 57 Ibuzatrelvir 27% 1 very limited data Andrograph.. 27% 7 Vilobelimab 26% 1 intravenous Azvudine 25% 37 N-acetylcys.. 25% 24 Amubarv../r.. 25% 4 intravenous Lactoferrin 24% 8 NaCl 23% 9 TMPRSS2 inh. 23% 29 Sotrovimab 22% 28 variant dependent Vitamin C 21% 75 Leritrelvir 21% 2 very limited data UDCA 19% 21 Camostat 18% 16 SNS812 17% 1 very limited data Famotidine 17% 30 Ensitrelvir 14% 7 very limited data Vitamin K 14% 2 very limited data Paxlovid 13% 82 independent trials refused Atilotrelvir 13% 1 very limited data Deuremidevir 11% 2 very limited data Favipiravir 10% 75 worse w/longer followup Molnupiravir 9% 51 mutagenic/teratogenic Tocilizumab 8% 47 Aspirin 8% 79 Empagliflozin 4% 1 very limited data Masks 2% 4 Ibuprofen 0% 13 Acebilustat 0% 1 very limited data Levilimab 0% 1 subcutaneous Vidofludimus 0% 1 very limited data Verapamil 0% 1 very limited data iC1e/K 0% 1 intravenous Adalimumab 0% 1 very limited data Zunsemetinib 0% 1 very limited data Sarilumab -0% 11 intravenous/subcutaneous Pomotrelvir -1% 1 very limited data Remdesivir -2% 81 worse w/longer followup Conv. Plasma -2% 57 intravenous Vadadustat -3% 1 very limited data Apremilast -3% 2 limited data DFV890 -3% 1 very limited data Dimethyl fu.. -3% 1 very limited data rhu-pGSN -3% 1 intravenous Aviptadil -5% 3 limited data Interleukin-2 -5% 2 intravenous Nicotine -5% 1 very limited data Ravulizumab -5% 2 intravenous HuMax-IL8 -6% 1 intravenous Lanadelumab -7% 1 very limited data Vitamin B9 -8% 12 CK0802 -8% 1 intravenous Plasma-activ.. -9% 1 very limited data Ibrutinib -9% 1 very limited data FX06 -10% 1 intravenous Razuprotafib -10% 2 subcutaneous Gimsilumab -10% 1 intravenous Lopinavir/r.. -11% 17 Dexamethas.. -11% 13 Gabapentin -11% 1 very limited data Dornase alfa -12% 3 very limited data Cannabidiol -13% 11 Sargramostim -13% 4 very limited data Brexanolone -14% 1 very limited data Peg.. Lambda -15% 5 subcutaneous Losartan -15% 5 very limited data Pentoxifylline -15% 3 very limited data Dolutegravir -15% 2 intravenous Plitidepsin -16% 2 intravenous MAS825 -16% 1 intravenous Trimodulin -17% 1 intravenous Amantadine -19% 3 very limited data Silymarin -20% 1 very limited data Metronidazole -20% 1 very limited data Lufotrelvir -22% 1 intravenous Pacritinib -28% 1 very limited data Cenicriviroc -28% 3 limited data Acetaminoph.. -28% 27 Crizanlizumab -29% 2 intravenous Cyproheptadine -30% 2 very limited data Belnacasan -34% 1 very limited data Darunavir -34% 5 very limited data BMS mAbs -36% 1 subcutaneous Domperidone -36% 1 very limited data Atovaquone -39% 1 very limited data GB0139 -40% 1 very limited data Brensocatib -41% 1 very limited data Danicopan -43% 1 very limited data XAV-19 -45% 2 intravenous PPIs -46% 40 Beta-glucans -49% 2 very limited data Olokizumab -50% 1 subcutaneous Ixekizumab -50% 1 subcutaneous Edaravone -50% 1 intravenous TRV027 -54% 2 intravenous Glenzocimab -60% 1 intravenous Siltuximab -64% 1 intravenous rNAPc2 -65% 1 subcutaneous Avdoralimab -68% 1 intravenous Cytokine Adso.. -72% 2 very limited data Zafirlukast -100% 1 very limited data Estetrol -102% 1 very limited data Amiodarone -103% 1 very limited data Varespladib -120% 1 very limited data Posaconazole -131% 1 very limited data Emvododstat -132% 1 very limited data Goflikicept -135% 1 subcutaneous YKYY017 -150% 1 very limited data Pemivibart -150% 1 intravenous Donidalorsen -151% 1 intravenous/subcutaneous Mefenamic Acid -189% 1 very limited data Baloxavir -200% 1 very limited data Zenuzolac -200% 1 very limited data Ammonium C.. -202% 1 very limited data Astodrimer S.. -205% 1 very limited data Hesperidin -209% 1 very limited data Sipavibart -241% 2 intramuscular LSALT peptide -407% 1 intravenous Clevudine -744% 1 very limited data All studies (pooled effects, all stages) c19early.org September 2025 Rotate device for details Favors treatment Favors control
Random effects meta-analysis of all studies (pooled effects, all stages). Treatments with ≤3 studies with distinct authors or with <50 control events are shown in grey. Pooled results across all stages and outcomes depend on the distribution of stages and outcomes tested - for example late stage treatment may be less effective and if the majority of studies are late stage this may obscure the efficacy of early treatment. Please see the specific stage and outcome analyses. Protocols typically combine multiple treatments which may be complementary and synergistic, and the SOC in studies often includes other treatments. 0.5% of proposed treatments show efficacy in clinical studies.
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Random effects meta-analysis of early treatment studies (pooled effects). Treatments with ≤3 studies with distinct authors or with <50 control events are shown in grey. Pooled results across all outcomes are affected by the distribution of outcomes tested, please see detail pages for specific outcome analysis. Protocols typically combine multiple treatments which may be complementary and synergistic, and the SOC in studies often includes other treatments. 0.5% of proposed treatments show efficacy in clinical studies.
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Random effects meta-analysis of all mortality results (all stages). Treatments with ≤3 studies with distinct authors or with <25 control events are shown in grey. Pooled results across all stages depend on the distribution of stages tested - for example late stage treatment may be less effective and if the majority of studies are late stage this may obscure the efficacy of early treatment. Please see the specific stage analyses. Protocols typically combine multiple treatments which may be complementary and synergistic, and the SOC in studies often includes other treatments. 0.5% of proposed treatments show efficacy in clinical studies.
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Random effects meta-analysis of early treatment mortality results. Treatments with ≤3 studies with distinct authors or with <25 control events are shown in grey. Protocols typically combine multiple treatments which may be complementary and synergistic, and the SOC in studies often includes other treatments. 0.5% of proposed treatments show efficacy in clinical studies.
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Random effects meta-analysis of prophylaxis studies (pooled effects). Treatments with ≤3 studies with distinct authors or with <50 control events are shown in grey. Pooled results across all outcomes are affected by the distribution of outcomes tested, please see detail pages for specific outcome analysis. Protocols typically combine multiple treatments which may be complementary and synergistic, and the SOC in studies often includes other treatments. 0.5% of proposed treatments show efficacy in clinical studies.
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Random effects meta-analysis of prophylaxis mortality results. Treatments with ≤3 studies with distinct authors or with <25 control events are shown in grey. Protocols typically combine multiple treatments which may be complementary and synergistic, and the SOC in studies often includes other treatments. 0.5% of proposed treatments show efficacy in clinical studies.
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Random effects meta-analysis of long covid results. Treatments with ≤3 studies with distinct authors or with <50 control events are shown in grey. Pooled results across all stages and outcomes depend on the distribution of stages and outcomes tested - for example late stage treatment may be less effective and if the majority of studies are late stage this may obscure the efficacy of early treatment. Please see the specific stage and outcome analyses. Protocols typically combine multiple treatments which may be complementary and synergistic, and the SOC in studies often includes other treatments. 0.5% of proposed treatments show efficacy in clinical studies.
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Random effects meta-analysis of transmission results. Treatments with ≤3 studies with distinct authors or with <50 control events are shown in grey. Pooled results across all stages and outcomes depend on the distribution of stages and outcomes tested - for example late stage treatment may be less effective and if the majority of studies are late stage this may obscure the efficacy of early treatment. Please see the specific stage and outcome analyses. Protocols typically combine multiple treatments which may be complementary and synergistic, and the SOC in studies often includes other treatments. 0.5% of proposed treatments show efficacy in clinical studies.
LATE TREATMENT
Physician / TeamLocationPatients HospitalizationHosp. MortalityDeath
Dr. David Uip (*) Brazil 2,200 38.6% (850) 2.5% (54)
Dr. Jake Scott (**) USA 1,000 10.0% (100)
Average 38.6% 6.2%
EARLY TREATMENT PROTOCOLS - 40 physicians/teams
Physician / TeamLocationPatients HospitalizationHosp. MortalityDeath
Dr. Roberto Alfonso Accinelli
0/360 deaths for treatment within 3 days
Peru 1,265 0.6% (7)
Dr. Mohammed Tarek Alam
patients up to 84 years old
Bangladesh 100 0.0% (0)
Dr. Oluwagbenga Alonge Nigeria 310 0.0% (0)
Dr. Raja Bhattacharya
up to 88yo, 81% comorbidities
India 148 1.4% (2)
Dr. Flavio Cadegiani Brazil 3,450 0.1% (4) 0.0% (0)
Dr. Alessandro Capucci Italy 350 4.6% (16)
Dr. Shankara Chetty South Africa 8,000 0.0% (0)
Dr. Deborah Chisholm USA 100 0.0% (0)
Dr. Ryan Cole USA 400 0.0% (0) 0.0% (0)
Dr. Marco Cosentino
earlier treatment results were better
Italy 392 6.4% (25) 0.3% (1)
Dr. Jeff Davis USA 6,000 0.0% (0)
Dr. Dhanajay India 500 0.0% (0)
Dr. Bryan Tyson & Dr. George Fareed USA 20,000 0.0% (6) 0.0% (4)
Dr. Raphael Furtado Brazil 170 0.6% (1) 0.0% (0)
Rabbi Yehoshua Gerzi Israel 860 0.1% (1) 0.0% (0)
Dr. Heather Gessling USA 1,500 0.1% (1)
Dr. Ellen Guimarães Brazil 500 1.6% (8) 0.4% (2)
Dr. Syed Haider USA 4,000 0.1% (5) 0.0% (0)
Dr. Mark Hancock USA 24 0.0% (0)
Dr. Sabine Hazan USA 1,000 0.0% (0)
Dr. Mollie James USA 3,500 1.1% (40) 0.0% (1)
Dr. Roberta Lacerda Brazil 550 1.5% (8) 0.4% (2)
Dr. Katarina Lindley USA 100 5.0% (5) 0.0% (0)
Dr. Ben Marble USA 150,000 0.0% (4)
Dr. Edimilson Migowski Brazil 2,000 0.3% (7) 0.1% (2)
Dr. Abdulrahman Mohana Saudi Arabia 2,733 0.0% (0)
Dr. Carlos Nigro Brazil 5,000 0.9% (45) 0.5% (23)
Dr. Benoit Ochs Luxembourg 800 0.0% (0)
Dr. Ortore Italy 240 1.2% (3) 0.0% (0)
Dr. Valerio Pascua
one patient already on oxygen died
Honduras 415 6.3% (26) 0.2% (1)
Dr. Sebastian Pop Romania 300 0.0% (0)
Dr. Brian Proctor USA 869 2.3% (20) 0.2% (2)
Dr. Anastacio Queiroz Brazil 700 0.0% (0)
Dr. Didier Raoult France 8,315 2.6% (214) 0.1% (5)
Dr. Karin Ried
up to 99yo, 73% comorbidities
Turkey 237 0.4% (1)
Dr. Roman Rozencwaig
patients up to 86 years old
Canada 80 0.0% (0)
Dr. Vipul Shah India 8,000 0.1% (5)
Dr. Silvestre Sobrinho Brazil 116 8.6% (10) 0.0% (0)
Dr. Unknown Brazil 957 1.7% (16) 0.2% (2)
Dr. Vladimir Zelenko USA 2,200 0.5% (12) 0.1% (2)
Average 2.2% 0.1%
Physician results with early combined treatment protocols compared to no early treatment. These results are subject to selection and ascertainment bias and more accurate analysis requires details of the patient populations and followup, however results are consistently better across many teams, and consistent with the extensive controlled trial evidence that shows a significant reduction in risk with many early treatments, and improved results with the use of multiple treatments in combination. (*) Dr. Uip reportedly prescribed early treatment for himself, but not for patients1. (**) Dr. Scott reports treating hundreds of patients and losing over a hundred, but has not provided specific numbers2. Dr. Scott reports following (and helping create) US guidelines.
Lehr
450 patient prophylaxis RCT: 72% fewer symptomatic cases (p=0.02), 69% fewer cases (p=0.03), and 34% faster viral clearance (p<0.0001)
Abiri
Cross-sectional study of 29 hospitalized COVID-19 patients four weeks post-infection showing increased DNA damage correlating with disease severity.
Bruno
Prospective study of 2,390 adults across 18 countries showing higher large-artery stiffness 6 months after COVID-19.
Yin
Review of thrombotic complications in COVID-19 patients and anticoagulation strategies. Authors note that COVID-19 induces a prethrombotic state..
Hanson
Review of host immune response (HR) diagnostics for infectious diseases, which measure gene expression profiles or inflammatory protein..
Jaurrieta-Largo
Retrospective 338 hospitalized COVID-19 patients in Spain showing that genetic polymorphisms in inflammation, vitamin D, and ACE2-related genes can..
de la Puente
Bioequivalence study of 66 healthy Mexican volunteers comparing two oral ivermectin formulations, showing significant pharmacokinetic variability...
Recent studies (see the individual treatment pages for all studies):

Sep 2
Lehr et al., JAMA Internal Medicine, doi:10.1001/jamainternmed.2025.4283 Azelastine Nasal Spray for Prevention of SARS-CoV-2 Infections
72% fewer symptomatic cases (p=0.02), 69% fewer cases (p=0.03), and 34% faster viral clearance (p<0.0001). RCT 450 healthy adults showing lower PCR-confirmed and symptomatic SARS-CoV-2 infections with azelastine 0.1% nasal spray (1 puff/nostril 3x/day for 56 days) versus placebo. The placebo formulation (hypromellose) may also have efficacy vi..
Sep 2
Horby et al., medRxiv, doi:10.1101/2025.08.29.25334732 Long-term follow-up of treatment comparisons in RECOVERY: a randomised, open-label, platform trial for patients hospitalised with COVID-19
6-month followup of RECOVERY patients. Results are reported within the respective trials for each treatment.
Aug 21
Saleh et al., Scientific Reports, doi:10.1038/s41598-025-16092-4 A Triple-blind randomized controlled trial on the effects of turmeric versus ginger on inflammatory biomarkers in patients with COVID-19
RCT 144 COVID-19 outpatients showing a significant reduction in inflammatory markers (CRP and ESR) with both turmeric and ginger compared with placebo. There was no significant difference between groups for LDH or WBC. Baseline age differ..
Aug 20
Huijghebaert et al., Frontiers in Public Health, doi:10.3389/fpubh.2025.1462286 Saline nasal irrigation and gargling in COVID-19: Part II. Outcomes in Omicron and risk–benefit for self-care
Systematic review of saline nasal irrigation (SNI) and gargling for COVID-19. Authors reviewed 14 studies with 2,389 patients with Omicron infection and found that early initiation of SNI and gargling consistently reduced viral loads and ..
Aug 18
Jaurrieta-Largo et al., International Journal of Molecular Sciences, doi:10.3390/ijms26167975 A Machine Learning Approach to Understanding the Genetic Role in COVID-19 Prognosis: The Influence of Gene Polymorphisms Related to Inflammation, Vitamin D, and ACE2
Retrospective 338 hospitalized COVID-19 patients in Spain showing that genetic polymorphisms in inflammation, vitamin D, and ACE2-related genes can predict COVID-19 pneumonia, mortality, and rehospitalization with high accuracy.
Aug 15
El Maakoul et al., The Egyptian Journal of Internal Medicine, doi:10.1186/s43162-025-00505-x Mortality related to COVID-19 in kidney transplant recipients, dialysis patients and patients with chronic kidney disease: a cohort study
Retrospective 250 COVID-19 patients with chronic kidney disease. Authors note in the abstract that azithromycin and vitamin C were associated with better outcomes, however no details are provided in the paper.
Aug 14
Kandel et al., Clinical Microbiology and Infection, doi:10.1016/j.cmi.2025.08.003 Peginterferon lambda for the treatment of patients admitted to hospital with COVID-19: a phase 2, placebo-controlled randomised trial
32% worse 7-point scale results (p=0.49). RCT 97 hospitalized COVID-19 patients showing no significant benefit with peginterferon lambda.
Aug 13
de la Puente et al., Pharmaceuticals, doi:10.3390/ph18081193 Variations in Plasma Levels of Orally Administered Ivermectin Could Hamper Its Potential Drug Repositioning: Results of a Bioequivalence Study in Mexican Population
Bioequivalence study of 66 healthy Mexican volunteers comparing two oral ivermectin formulations, showing significant pharmacokinetic variability. The study found high inter- and intra-subject variability (>50% coefficient of variation) i..
Aug 12
Bramante et al., medRxiv, doi:10.1101/2025.08.08.25333305 Metformin on the Presence of COVID-19 Symptoms Over 6 Months: The ACTIV-6 Randomized Clinical Trial
RCT 2,983 outpatients showing lower incidence of long COVID symptoms with metformin, without statistical significance. The primary endpoint of post-acute sequelae of COVID-19 or death at day 180 occurred in 2.3% of metformin patients vs 3..
We aim to cover the most promising early treatments for COVID-19. We use pre-specified effect extraction criteria that prioritizes more serious outcomes, for details see methods. For specific outcomes and different treatment stages see the individual pages. Not all treatments are covered here, effectiveness has been reported for many other treatments in studies. Of the 6,129 studies, 2,871 present results comparing with a control group, 2,649 are treatment studies, and 222 analyze outcomes based on serum levels. There are 123 animal studies, 227 in silico studies, 436 in vitro studies, 487 reviews, and 249 meta analyses.
References
Please send us corrections, updates, or comments. c19early involves the extraction of 200,000+ datapoints from thousands of papers. Community updates help ensure high accuracy. Treatments and other interventions are complementary. All practical, effective, and safe means should be used based on risk/benefit analysis. No treatment or intervention is 100% available and effective for all current and future variants. We do not provide medical advice. Before taking any medication, consult a qualified physician who can provide personalized advice and details of risks and benefits based on your medical history and situation. IMA and WCH provide treatment protocols.
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