Supplementary Data — Exercise reduces COVID-19 risk: real-time meta analysis of 68 studies

@CovidAnalysis, December 2025, Version 43V43
0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1 1.25 1.5 1.75 2+ Fernandez 47% 0.53 [0.29-0.90] death 16/201 62/238 Improvement, RR [CI] Treatment Control Hamer 28% 0.72 [0.61-0.87] hosp. n/a n/a Hamer 34% 0.66 [0.55-0.79] hosp. n/a n/a Brawner 74% 0.26 [0.11-0.58] hosp. n/a n/a Tret'yakov 98% 0.02 [0.00-0.27] severe case 0/27 53/266 Gao -105% 2.05 [1.39-3.02] cases case control Ho 35% 0.65 [0.48-0.89] hosp. 213/123,588 59/14,887 Halabchi 89% 0.11 [0.01-1.46] death 0/249 79/4,445 Halabchi 28% 0.72 [0.51-0.98] hosp. 30/249 878/4,445 Zhang 26% 0.74 [0.48-1.14] death n/a n/a Zhang 18% 0.82 [0.69-0.96] cases n/a n/a Li 81% 0.19 [0.05-0.74] severe case n/a n/a per SD increase Li 56% 0.44 [0.18-1.07] hosp. n/a n/a per SD increase Tavakol 69% 0.31 [0.10-1.02] severe case 3/64 19/124 Yates 45% 0.55 [0.38-0.79] death 72/163,912 62/30,119 Yates 47% 0.53 [0.43-0.66] severe case 291/163,912 180/30,119 COVIDENCE UK Holt 17% 0.83 [0.63-1.09] cases 15,227 (all patients) Cho 53% 0.47 [0.26-0.87] death case control Cho 10% 0.90 [0.86-0.95] cases case control Sallis 59% 0.41 [0.22-0.76] death 11/3,118 170/6,984 Sallis 42% 0.58 [0.40-0.85] ICU 32/3,118 195/6,984 Sallis 53% 0.47 [0.38-0.58] hosp. 99/3,118 732/6,984 Christensen 63% 0.37 [0.16-0.85] death 543 (n) 529 (n) Christensen 23% 0.77 [0.52-1.15] cases 55/543 77/529 Lobelo 20% 0.80 [0.66-0.97] hosp. 2,121 (n) 1,648 (n) Hegazy 46% 0.54 [0.26-1.15] m/s case 24/82 7/13 Latorre-Román 76% 0.24 [0.05-1.04] hosp. n/a n/a Latorre-Román 87% 0.13 [0.01-1.17] hosp. n/a n/a Marcus 42% 0.58 [0.48-0.71] symp. case 240/10,627 134/3,708 Yuan 91% 0.09 [0.01-1.65] death 0/61 6/103 Yuan 70% 0.30 [0.09-0.92] severe case 3/61 26/103 Brandenburg -6% 1.06 [0.23-4.79] hosp. 102 (n) 39 (n) Brandenburg 78% 0.22 [0.05-1.02] hosp. 177 (n) 34 (n) Brandenburg 64% 0.36 [0.13-0.98] hosp. 97 (n) 34 (n) Brandenburg 35% 0.65 [0.28-1.48] severe case 102 (n) 39 (n) Brandenburg 24% 0.76 [0.28-2.04] severe case 52 (n) 34 (n) Bielik 30% 0.70 [0.40-1.21] mod. case 775 (n) 365 (n) Bielik -9% 1.09 [0.69-1.73] cases 775 (n) 365 (n) af Geijerstam 50% 0.50 [0.31-0.81] death 318,902 (n) 336,271 (n) af Geijerstam 40% 0.60 [0.46-0.80] ICU 318,902 (n) 336,271 (n) af Geijerstam 27% 0.73 [0.64-0.83] hosp. 318,902 (n) 336,271 (n) Lee 74% 0.26 [0.07-0.99] death 2/11,072 32/41,293 Lee 58% 0.42 [0.19-0.91] severe case 39/11,072 273/41,293 Lee 16% 0.84 [0.73-0.98] cases 291/11,072 1,293/41,293 Maltagliati 52% 0.48 [0.25-0.87] hosp. n/a n/a Baynouna AlKetbi 98% 0.01 [0.00-0.44] death n/a n/a Ahmadi 30% 0.70 [0.54-0.89] death 160/232,613 112/95,221 Nguyen 20% 0.80 [0.72-0.88] symp. case 904/2,836 483/1,111 Lin 47% 0.53 [0.12-2.33] cases n/a n/a de Souza 73% 0.27 [0.07-1.06] ventilation 3/611 6/327 de Souza 34% 0.66 [0.43-0.99] hosp. 49/611 42/327 Mohsin 19% 0.81 [0.66-0.99] severe case 86/258 224/544 Mohsin -1% 1.01 [0.88-1.15] severe case 290/698 224/544 Ekblom-Bak 48% 0.52 [0.30-0.92] severe case n/a n/a Lengelé 74% 0.26 [0.07-0.80] cases 23/229 4/12 Saadeh 9% 0.91 [0.56-1.43] symp. case 362 (n) 225 (n) Saadeh 4% 0.96 [0.62-1.43] symp. case 362 (n) 225 (n) Hamrouni 29% 0.71 [0.55-0.92] death 138/106,006 109/47,827 Huang 47% 0.53 [0.23-1.22] severe case 7/74 16/90 Huang 8% 0.92 [0.30-2.85] severe case 3/23 20/141 Huang 66% 0.34 [0.17-0.70] cases n/a n/a Hamdan 16% 0.84 [0.49-1.39] hosp. 22/128 37/172 Steenkamp 42% 0.58 [0.50-0.68] death 29,469 (n) 13,366 (n) Steenkamp 45% 0.55 [0.47-0.64] ventilation 29,469 (n) 13,366 (n) Steenkamp 41% 0.59 [0.52-0.66] ICU 29,469 (n) 13,366 (n) Steenkamp 34% 0.66 [0.63-0.70] hosp. 29,469 (n) 13,366 (n) Gilley -42% 1.42 [0.60-3.35] cases 172/1,917 5/79 Almansour 6% 0.94 [0.40-1.47] cases 35/71 38/71 Beydoun 43% 0.57 [0.32-1.01] cases 1,710 (n) 448 (n) Beydoun 62% 0.38 [0.18-0.78] cases 672 (n) 448 (n) Salgado-Aranda 83% 0.17 [0.05-0.56] death 4/223 41/297 Paul 38% 0.62 [0.30-1.20] PASC 1,811 (all patients) LONG COVID Paul 4% 0.96 [0.53-1.63] PASC 1,811 (all patients) LONG COVID Kontopoulou 66% 0.34 [0.24-0.47] recov. time 42 (n) 24 (n) Kontopoulou 67% 0.33 [0.24-0.46] no recov. 42 (n) 24 (n) Malisoux 63% 0.37 [0.14-0.98] progression 115 (n) 108 (n) Malisoux 52% 0.48 [0.18-1.29] progression 116 (n) 108 (n) Malisoux 43% 0.57 [0.20-1.58] progression 113 (n) 108 (n) Antunes 80% 0.20 [0.03-1.41] ICU 1/14 9/25 Antunes 40% 0.60 [0.19-1.84] misc. 3/14 9/25 Antunes 73% 0.27 [0.08-0.93] misc. 2/14 13/25 Antunes 43% 0.57 [0.34-0.95] hosp. time 14 (n) 25 (n) Antunes 26% 0.74 [0.58-0.95] misc. 14 (n) 25 (n) Tsuzuki 56% 0.44 [0.36-0.52] severe case 3,340 (n) 1,528 (n) Reis 41% 0.59 [0.26-1.26] hosp. 9/241 29/305 Pływaczewska-J.. 11% 0.89 [0.72-1.11] m/s case 490 (n) 1,357 (n) Pływaczewska-J.. 14% 0.86 [0.66-1.11] PASC 389 (n) 1,128 (n) Pitanga 33% 0.67 [0.45-1.01] cases 1,469 (n) 1,552 (n) Green 42% 0.58 [0.53-0.63] cases 1,267/11,144 16,198/101,931 Kapusta 71% 0.29 [0.20-0.43] severe case 181 (n) 387 (n) Young 74% 0.26 [0.20-0.33] death 11,279 (n) 29,099 (n) Young 65% 0.35 [0.27-0.45] death 11,279 (n) 83,452 (n) Young 48% 0.52 [0.40-0.68] death 11,279 (n) 42,490 (n) Young 35% 0.65 [0.49-0.85] death 11,279 (n) 27,871 (n) Young 48% 0.52 [0.46-0.60] hosp. 11,279 (n) 29,099 (n) Young 42% 0.58 [0.51-0.66] hosp. 11,279 (n) 83,452 (n) Young 30% 0.70 [0.61-0.79] hosp. 11,279 (n) 42,490 (n) Young 20% 0.80 [0.70-0.91] hosp. 11,279 (n) 27,871 (n) Wang 11% 0.89 [0.75-1.06] PASC 274/691 283/594 LONG COVID Wang 49% 0.51 [0.33-0.78] PASC 188 (n) 66 (n) LONG COVID Park 26% 0.74 [0.53-1.04] death n/a n/a Park 38% 0.62 [0.41-0.93] death n/a n/a Park 7% 0.93 [0.87-0.99] cases n/a n/a Park 10% 0.90 [0.84-0.96] cases n/a n/a Sanchez 54% 0.46 [0.38-0.55] symp. case n/a n/a Cardoso 73% 0.27 [0.17-0.45] severe case case control Feter 26% 0.74 [0.58-0.95] PASC 52 (n) 95 (n) LONG COVID Feter 17% 0.83 [0.69-0.99] PASC 67 (n) 170 (n) LONG COVID Sutkowska 62% 0.38 [0.08-1.72] death 71 (n) 60 (n) Sutkowska 61% 0.39 [0.04-4.39] no recov. 71 (n) 60 (n) Frish 53% 0.47 [0.23-0.95] cases 212 (n) 1,202 (n) CoCo-Fakt Schmidt 31% 0.69 [0.50-0.94] cases 956 (n) 2,705 (n) CoCo-Fakt Schmidt 34% 0.66 [0.46-0.93] cases 956 (n) 1,113 (n) CoCo-Fakt Schmidt 23% 0.77 [0.62-0.97] cases 3,658 (n) 1,680 (n) CoCo-Fakt Schmidt 22% 0.78 [0.63-0.98] cases 3,371 (n) 1,716 (n) Šebić 89% 0.11 [0.01-0.96] oxygen 0/53 4/47 Šebić 91% 0.09 [0.01-0.69] hosp. 0/53 5/47 Šebić 84% 0.16 [0.06-0.43] progression 4/53 22/47 Šebić 47% 0.53 [0.37-0.75] no recov. 22/53 37/47 Hegazy 54% 0.46 [0.27-0.77] m/s case 15/50 15/23 Hegazy 97% 0.03 [0.00-0.43] m/s case 0/7 30/61 Akbar 7% 0.93 [0.79-1.10] cases 3,333 (n) 3,333 (n) Pavlidou 42% 0.58 [0.51-0.68] cases 902 (n) 4,295 (n) Rocha 20% 0.80 [0.63-0.99] PASC 388 (n) 2,096 (n) LONG COVID Rocha 30% 0.70 [0.49-0.99] PASC 388 (n) 2,096 (n) LONG COVID Rocha 39% 0.61 [0.43-0.88] PASC 388 (n) 2,096 (n) LONG COVID Rocha 42% 0.58 [0.35-0.96] PASC 388 (n) 2,096 (n) LONG COVID Rocha 5% 0.95 [0.66-1.35] PASC 388 (n) 2,096 (n) LONG COVID Rocha 73% 0.27 [0.04-2.04] PASC 388 (n) 2,096 (n) LONG COVID Wang 30% 0.70 [0.61-0.80] death 57,930 (n) 10,966 (n) Wang 12% 0.88 [0.83-0.94] hosp. 57,930 (n) 10,966 (n) Wang 14% 0.86 [0.80-0.92] PASC 57,930 (n) 10,966 (n) Muñoz-Vergara 27% 0.73 [0.60-0.90] hosp. 332/42,159 203/12,405 Muñoz-Vergara 9% 0.91 [0.85-0.97] cases 3,898/42,159 1,293/12,405 Exercise COVID-19 outcomes c19early.org December 2025 Favors exercise Favors inactivity
Fig. S1. All outcomes.