The Interaction of Vitamin D and Corticosteroids: A Mortality Analysis of 26,508 Veterans Who Tested Positive for SARS-CoV-2
Jimmy T Efird, Ethan J Anderson, Charulata Jindal, Thomas S Redding, Andrew D Thompson, Ashlyn M Press, Julie Upchurch, Christina D Williams, Yuk Ming Choi, Ayako Suzuki
International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, doi:10.3390/ijerph19010447
This data-based cohort consisted of 26,508 (7%) United States veterans out of the 399,290 who tested positive for SARS-CoV-2 from 1 March to 10 September 2020. We aimed to assess the interaction of post-index vitamin D (Vit D) and corticosteroid (CRT) use on 30-day mortality among hospitalized and non-hospitalized patients with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). Combination Vit D and CRT drug use was assessed according to four multinomial pairs (−|+, −|−, +|+, +|−). Respective categorical effects were computed on a log-binomial scale as adjusted relative risk (aRR). Approximately 6% of veterans who tested positive for SARS-CoV-2 died within 30 days of their index date. Among hospitalized patients, a significantly decreased aRR was observed for the use of Vit D in the absence of CRTs relative to patients who received CRTs but not Vit D (aRR = 0.30; multiplicity corrected, p = 0.0004). Among patients receiving systemically administered CRTs (e.g., dexamethasone), the use of Vit D was associated with fewer deaths in hospitalized patients (aRR = 0.51) compared with non-hospitalized patients (aRR = 2.5) (P-for-Interaction = 0.0071). Evaluating the effect of modification of these compounds in the context of hospitalization may aid in the management of COVID-19 and provide a better understanding of the pathophysiological mechanisms underlying this and future infectious disease outbreaks.
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, J.T.E., A.S. and E.J.A.; data curation, T.S.R., A.D.T. and J.T.E.; formal analysis, J.T.E., T.S.R. and A.D.T.; funding acquisition, A.S.; methodology, J.T.E.; project administration, A.S., A.M.P. and J.U.; supervision, A.S. and J.T.E.; validation, A.D.T.; visualization,
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
References
Aboumrad, Shiner, Riblet, Huizenga, Neupane et al., Trends in COVID-19 cases and clinical management in Veterans Health Administration medical facilities: A national cohort study, PLoS ONE,
doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0246217Abrishami, Dalili, Mohammadi Torbati, Asgari, Arab-Ahmadi et al., Possible association of vitamin D status with lung involvement and outcome in patients with COVID-19: A retrospective study, Eur. J. Nutr,
doi:10.1007/s00394-020-02411-0Agrawal, Evaluation of Corticosteroids-Vitamin D Combination in Asthma
Al-Anouti, Mousa, Karras, Grant, Alhalwachi et al., Associations between Genetic Variants in the Vitamin D Metabolism Pathway and Severity of COVID-19 among UAE Residents, Nutrients,
doi:10.3390/nu13113680Alcala-Diaz, Limia-Perez, Gomez-Huelgas, Martin-Escalante, Cortes-Rodriguez et al., Calcifediol Treatment and Hospital Mortality Due to COVID-19: A Cohort Study, Nutrients,
doi:10.3390/nu13061760Alguwaihes, Sabico, Hasanato, Al-Sofiani, Megdad et al., Severe vitamin D deficiency is not related to SARS-CoV-2 infection but may increase mortality risk in hospitalized adults: A retrospective case-control study in an Arab Gulf country, Aging Clin. Exp. Res
Amrein, Papinutti, Mathew, Vila, Parekh, Vitamin D and critical illness: What endocrinology can learn from intensive care and vice versa, Endocr. Connect,
doi:10.1530/EC-18-0184Annweiler, Corvaisier, Gautier, Dubée, Legrand et al., Vitamin D Supplementation Associated to Better Survival in Hospitalized Frail Elderly COVID-19 Patients: The GERIA-COVID Quasi-Experimental Study, Nutrients,
doi:10.3390/nu12113377Annweiler, Hanotte, Grandin De L'eprevier, Sabatier, Lafaie et al., Vitamin D and survival in COVID-19 patients: A quasi-experimental study, J. Steroid Biochem. Mol. Biol,
doi:10.1016/j.jsbmb.2020.105771Arthur, Vitamine, Covid, -19, Bull. Acad. Natl. Med
Arvinte, Singh, Marik, Serum Levels of Vitamin C and Vitamin D in a Cohort of Critically Ill COVID-19 Patients of a North American Community Hospital Intensive Care Unit in May 2020: A Pilot Study, Med. Drug Discov
Barassi, Pezzilli, Mondoni, Rinaldo, Davì et al., Vitamin D in severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) patients with non-invasive ventilation support, Panminerva Med
Basheer, Saad, Shlezinger, Assy, Convalescent Plasma Reduces Mortality and Decreases Hospitalization Stay in Patients with Moderate COVID-19 Pneumonia, Metabolites,
doi:10.3390/metabo11110761Bassatne, Basbous, Chakhtoura, El Zein, Rahme et al., The link between COVID-19 and VItamin D (VIVID): A systematic review and meta-analysis, Metabolism,
doi:10.1016/j.metabol.2021.154753Benjamini, Yekutieli, False Discovery Rate-Adjusted Multiple Confidence Intervals for Selected Parameters, J. Am. Stat. Assoc,
doi:10.1198/016214504000001907Benskin, The influence of vitamin D on COVID-19 outcomes
Bianconi, Mannarino, Figorilli, Cosentini, Batori et al., Prevalence of vitamin D deficiency and its prognostic impact on patients hospitalized with COVID-19, Nutrition,
doi:10.1016/j.nut.2021.111408Bilezikian, Bikle, Hewison, Lazaretti-Castro, Formenti et al., Mechanisma in endocrinology: Vitamin D and COVID-19, Eur. J. Endocrinol
Bland, Introduction to Medical Statistics
Borsche, Glauner, Von Mendel, COVID-19 mortality risk correlates inversely with vitamin D3 status, and a mortality rate close to zero could theoretically be achieved at 50 ng/ml 25(OH)D3: Results of a systematic review and meta-analysis, medRxiv,
doi:10.3390/nu13103596Brenner, Vitamin D Supplementation to Prevent COVID-19 Infections and Deaths-Accumulating Evidence from Epidemiological and Intervention Studies Calls for Immediate Action, Nutrients,
doi:10.3390/nu13020411Breslow, Day, The Analysis of Case-control Studies, Statistical Methods in Cancer Research
Burt, Billington, Rose, Raymond, Hanley et al., Effect of High-Dose Vitamin D Supplementation on Volumetric Bone Density and Bone Strength: A Randomized Clinical Trial, JAMA,
doi:10.1001/jama.2019.11889Burton, Kehrli, Jr, Kapil, Horst, Regulation of L-selectin and CD18 on bovine neutrophils by glucocorticoids: Effects of cortisol and dexamethasone, J. Leukoc. Biol,
doi:10.1002/jlb.57.2.317Butler-Laporte, Nakanishi, Mooser, Morrison, Abdullah et al., Vitamin D and COVID-19 susceptibility and severity in the COVID-19 Host Genetics Initiative: A Mendelian randomization study, PLoS Med,
doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.1003605Campi, Gennari, Merlotti, Mingiano, Frosali et al., Vitamin D and COVID-19 severity and related mortality: A prospective study in Italy, BMC Infect. Dis
Cangiano, Fatti, Danesi, Gazzano, Croci et al., Mortality in an Italian nursing home during COVID-19 pandemic: Correlation with gender, age, ADL, vitamin D supplementation, and limitations of the diagnostic tests, Aging,
doi:10.18632/aging.202307Carpagnano, Di Lecce, Quaranta, Zito, Buonamico et al., Vitamin D deficiency as a predictor of poor prognosis in patients with acute respiratory failure due to COVID-19, J. Endocrinol. Investig,
doi:10.1007/s40618-020-01370-xCastillo, Entrenas Costa, Vaquero Barrios, Alcalá Díaz, López Miranda et al., Effect of calcifediol treatment and best available therapy versus best available therapy on intensive care unit admission and mortality among patients hospitalized for COVID-19: A pilot randomized clinical study, J. Steroid Biochem. Mol. Biol,
doi:10.1016/j.jsbmb.2020.105751Cereda, Bogliolo, Klersy, Lobascio, Masi et al., Vitamin D 25OH deficiency in COVID-19 patients admitted to a tertiary referral hospital, Clin. Nutr
Cereda, Bogliolo, Lobascio, Barichella, Zecchinelli et al., Vitamin D supplementation and outcomes in coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) patients from the outbreak area of Lombardy, Italy, Nutrition,
doi:10.1016/j.nut.2020.111055Chapman, Peterson, Turano, Box, Wallace et al., A Natural Language Processing System for National COVID-19 Surveillance in the US Department of Veterans Affairs
Chinapaka, Baba, Kandakatla, Impact of daily high dose oral vitamin D therapy on the inflammatory markers in patients with COVID 19 disease, Sci. Rep
Cohn, Cirillo, Murphy, Krigbaum, Wallace, SARS-CoV-2 vaccine protection and deaths among US veterans during, Science,
doi:10.1126/science.abm0620Craft, Travassos, Foppiano Palacios, Openshaw, Inadequate Minority Representation within SARS-CoV-2 Vaccine Trials, Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg,
doi:10.4269/ajtmh.20-1294Cronstein, Kimmel, Levin, Martiniuk, Weissmann, A mechanism for the antiinflammatory effects of corticosteroids: The glucocorticoid receptor regulates leukocyte adhesion to endothelial cells and expression of endothelialleukocyte adhesion molecule 1 and intercellular adhesion molecule 1, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci,
doi:10.1073/pnas.89.21.9991Da Rocha, Atallah, Aldrighi, Pires, Dos Santos Puga et al., Insufficient evidence for vitamin D use in COVID-19: A rapid systematic review, Int. J. Clin. Pract,
doi:10.1111/ijcp.14649Davidson, Walker, Truby, Do glucocorticosteroids alter vitamin D status? A systematic review with meta-analyses of observational studies, J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab,
doi:10.1210/jc.2011-2757Dayal, Gupta, Surulinathi, Nanda, COVID-19 and Vitamin D Deficiency: A Scientometric Assessment of Global Publications during 2020-21, J. Young Pharm,
doi:10.5530/jyp.2021.13s.77De Smet, De Smet, Herroelen, Gryspeerdt, Martens, Serum 25(OH)D Level on Hospital Admission Associated with COVID-19 Stage and Mortality, Am. J. Clin. Pathol,
doi:10.1093/ajcp/aqaa252Devoto, Arcurio, Fetta, Ley, Rodney et al., Inflammation Relates to Chronic Behavioral and Neurological Symptoms in Military Personnel with Traumatic Brain Injuries, Cell Transplant,
doi:10.1177/0963689717714098Dhawan, Christakos, Novel regulation of 25-hydroxyvitamin D3 24-hydroxylase (24(OH)ase) transcription by glucocorticoids:Ccooperative effects of the glucocorticoid receptor, C/EBP beta, and the Vitamin D receptor in 24(OH)ase transcription, J. Cell. Biochem,
doi:10.1002/jcb.22645Dramé, Cofais, Hentzien, Proye, Coulibaly et al., Relation between Vitamin D and COVID-19 in Aged People: A Systematic Review, Nutrients
Duvall, Scehnet, VA Informatics and Computing Infrastructure: Introduction to the VA COVID-19 Shared Data Resource and Its Use for Research NW Washington DC 204202020
Efird, Goldilocks Rounding: Achieving Balance between Accuracy and Parsimony in the Reporting of Relative Effect Estimates, Cancer Inform,
doi:10.1177/1176935120985132Escobar, Adams, Liu, Soltesz, Chen et al., Racial Disparities in COVID-19 Testing and Outcomes: Retrospective Cohort Study in an Integrated Health System, Ann. Intern. Med,
doi:10.7326/M20-6979Faul, Kerley, Love, O'neill, Cody et al., Vitamin D Deficiency and ARDS after SARS-CoV-2 Infection, Ir. Med. J
Ferreira, Kleijwegt, Waelkens, Lage, Nikolic et al., Differential protein pathways in 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin d(3) and dexamethasone modulated tolerogenic human dendritic cells, J. Proteome Res,
doi:10.1021/pr200724eFilep, Delalandre, Payette, Földes-Filep, Glucocorticoid receptor regulates expression of L-selectin and CD11/CD18 on human neutrophils, Circulation,
doi:10.1161/01.CIR.96.1.295Fogleman, Janney, Cialdella-Kam, Flint, Vitamin D Deficiency in the Military: It's Time to Act!, Mil. Med,
doi:10.1093/milmed/usab402Garg, Patel, Pham, Whitaker, O'halloran et al., Trends Among U.S. Adults Hospitalized With COVID-19, March to, Ann. Intern. Med,
doi:10.7326/M21-1991Geara, Castellanos, Bassil, Schuller-Levis, Park et al., Effects of parathyroid hormone on immune function, Clin. Dev. Immunol,
doi:10.1155/2010/418695Giannini, Passeri, Tripepi, Sella, Fusaro et al., Effectiveness of In-Hospital Cholecalciferol Use on Clinical Outcomes in Comorbid COVID-19 Patients: A Hypothesis-Generating Study, Nutrients,
doi:10.3390/nu13010219Gibson-Moore, Vitamin, What's new a year on from the COVID-19 outbreak?, Nutr. Bull,
doi:10.1111/nbu.12499Griffin, Hewison, Hopkin, Kenny, Quinton et al., Perspective: Vitamin D supplementation prevents rickets and acute respiratory infections when given as daily maintenance but not as intermittent bolus: Implications for COVID-19, Clin. Med,
doi:10.7861/clinmed.2021-0035Griffith, Morris, Tudball, Herbert, Mancano et al., Collider bias undermines our understanding of COVID-19 disease risk and severity, Nat. Commun
Gönen, Alaylıo Glu, Durcan, Özdemir, Şahin et al., Rapid and Effective Vitamin D Supplementation May Present Better Clinical Outcomes in COVID-19 (SARS-CoV-2) Patients by Altering Serum INOS1, IL1B, IFNg, Cathelicidin-LL37, and ICAM1, Nutrients,
doi:10.3390/nu13114047Güven, Gültekin, The effect of high-dose parenteral vitamin D(3) on COVID-19-related inhospital mortality in critical COVID-19 patients during intensive care unit admission: An observational cohort study, Eur. J. Clin. Nutr
Hahn, Glucocorticosteroids are potential confounders in studies of vitamin D and asthma, Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med,
doi:10.1164/ajrccm.185.11.1245Han, Jones, Tangpricha, Brown, Brown et al., High Dose Vitamin D Administration in Ventilated Intensive Care Unit Patients: A Pilot Double Blind Randomized Controlled Trial, J. Clin. Transl. Endocrinol,
doi:10.1016/j.jcte.2016.04.004Hariyanto, Intan, Hananto, Harapan, Kurniawan, Vitamin D supplementation and Covid-19 outcomes: A systematic review, meta-analysis and meta-regression, Rev. Med. Virol,
doi:10.1002/rmv.2269Hernández, Nan, Fernandez-Ayala, García-Unzueta, Hernández-Hernández et al., Vitamin D Status in Hospitalized Patients with SARS-CoV-2
Hidalgo, Deeb, Pike, Johnson, Trump, Dexamethasone enhances 1alpha,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 effects by increasing vitamin D receptor transcription, J. Biol. Chem,
doi:10.1074/jbc.M111.244061Hoerster, Lehavot, Simpson, Mcfall, Reiber et al., Health and health behavior differences: U.S. Military, veteran, and civilian men, Am. J. Prev. Med,
doi:10.1016/j.amepre.2012.07.029Horby, Lim, Emberson, Mafham, Bell et al., Dexamethasone in Hospitalized Patients with COVID-19, N. Engl. J. Med,
doi:10.1056/NEJMoa2021436Hsu, Prince, Williams, Allen, Burke et al., Clinical and biomarker modifiers of vitamin D treatment response: The multi-ethnic study of atherosclerosis, Am. J. Clin. Nutr,
doi:10.1093/ajcn/nqab390Hung, Lee, Lynch, Li, Poonnen et al., Chemoradiation treatment patterns among United States Veteran Health Administration patients with unresectable stage III non-small cell lung cancer, BMC Cancer,
doi:10.1186/s12885-021-08577-yIacobucci, COVID-19: NHS bosses told to assess risk to ethnic minority staff who may be at greater risk, BMJ
Ioannou, O'hare, Berry, Fan, Crothers et al., Trends over time in the risk of adverse outcomes among patients with SARS-CoV-2 infection, Clin. Infect. Dis,
doi:10.1093/cid/ciab419Jain, Chaurasia, Sengar, Singh, Mahor et al., Analysis of vitamin D level among asymptomatic and critically ill COVID-19 patients and its correlation with inflammatory markers, Sci. Rep,
doi:10.1038/s41598-020-77093-zJevalikar, Mithal, Singh, Sharma, Farooqui et al., Lack of association of baseline 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels with disease severity and mortality in Indian patients hospitalized for COVID-19, Sci. Rep,
doi:10.1038/s41598-021-85809-yJungreis, Kellis, Mathematical analysis of Córdoba calcifediol trial suggests strong role for Vitamin D in reducing ICU admissions of hospitalized COVID-19 patients, medRxiv,
doi:10.1101/2020.11.08.20222638Karonova, Andreeva, Vashukova, Serum 25 (OH) D level in COVID-19 patients, J. Infectol
Kazemi, Mohammadi, Aghababaee, Golzarand, Clark et al., Association of Vitamin D Status with SARS-CoV-2 Infection or COVID-19 Severity: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis, Adv. Nutr,
doi:10.1093/advances/nmab012Kerget, Kerget, Kızıltunç, Koçak, Araz et al., Evaluation of the relationship of serum vitamin D levels in COVID-19 patients with clinical course and prognosis, Tuberk. Torak,
doi:10.5578/tt.70027Ketha, Thacher, Oberhelman, Fischer, Singh et al., Comparison of the effect of daily versus bolus dose maternal vitamin D(3) supplementation on the 24,25-dihydroxyvitamin D(3) to 25-hydroxyvitamin D(3) ratio, Bone,
doi:10.1016/j.bone.2018.02.024Kishore, Grimes, Anderson, Bharti, Joseph et al., Recommendations for High Vitamin D Supplementation to help Fight the COVID-19 Pandemic and its Inclusion in National COVID-19 Management Guidelines, Epidem. Int
Klinger, Alexiewicz, Linker-Israeli, Pitts, Gaciong et al., Effect of parathyroid hormone on human T cell activation, Kidney Int,
doi:10.1038/ki.1990.147Kojima, Tamai, Masaki, Gatchell, Epure et al., Prevalence of vitamin D deficiency and association with functional status in newly admitted male veteran nursing home residents, J. Am. Geriatr. Soc,
doi:10.1111/jgs.12495Kurahashi, Matsunuma, Kawane, Abe, Horiuchi, Dexamethasone enhances vitamin D-24-hydroxylase expression in osteoblastic (UMR-106) and renal (LLC-PK1) cells treated with 1alpha,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3, Endocrine
Lakkireddy, Gadiga, Malathi, Karra, Raju et al., None
Lewin, Ladefoged, Brandi, Olgaard, Parathyroid hormone dependent T cell proliferation in uremic rats, Kidney Int,
doi:10.1038/ki.1993.255Ling, Broad, Murphy, Pappachan, Pardesi-Newton et al., High-Dose Cholecalciferol Booster Therapy is Associated with a Reduced Risk of Mortality in Patients with COVID-19: A Cross-Sectional Multi-Centre Observational Study, Nutrients,
doi:10.3390/nu12123799Lohia, Nguyen, Patel, Kapur, Exploring the link between vitamin D and clinical outcomes in COVID-19, Am. J. Physiol. Metab,
doi:10.1152/ajpendo.00517.2020Loucera, Peña-Chilet, Esteban-Medina, Muñoyerro-Muñiz, Villegas et al., Real world evidence of calcifediol or vitamin D prescription and mortality rate of COVID-19 in a retrospective cohort of hospitalized Andalusian patients, Sci. Rep,
doi:10.1038/s41598-021-02701-5Luo, Liao, Shen, Li, Cheng, Vitamin D Deficiency Is Associated with COVID-19 Incidence and Disease Severity in Chinese People, J. Nutr,
doi:10.1093/jn/nxaa332Macaya, Espejo Paeres, Valls, Fernández-Ortiz, González Del Castillo et al., Interaction between age and vitamin D deficiency in severe COVID-19 infection, Nutr. Hosp
Maghbooli, Sahraian, Jamalimoghadamsiahkali, Asadi, Zarei et al., Treatment with 25-Hydroxyvitamin D(3) (Calcifediol) Is Associated with a Reduction in the Blood Neutrophil-to-Lymphocyte Ratio Marker of Disease Severity in Hospitalized Patients with COVID-19: A Pilot Multicenter, Randomized, Placebo-Controlled, Double-Blinded Clinical Trial, Endocr. Pract,
doi:10.1016/j.eprac.2021.09.016Maloney, Goolkasian, Vitamin, States Observed in U.S. Marines and Navy Sailors with Early Multi-Symptom Illness, Biomolecules,
doi:10.3390/biom10071032Mandal, Wenban, Heer, Baktash, Missouris, Does Vitamin D have a role to play in COVID-19 in the dexamethasone era?, Diabetes Metab. Syndr. Clin. Res. Rev,
doi:10.1016/j.dsx.2021.102237Mardani, Alamdary, Mousavi Nasab, Gholami, Ahmadi et al., Association of vitamin D with the modulation of the disease severity in COVID-19, Virus Res,
doi:10.1016/j.virusres.2020.198148Mariani, Giménez, Bergam, Tajer, Antonietti et al., Association Between Vitamin D Deficiency and COVID-19 Incidence, Complications, and Mortality in 46 Countries: An Ecological Study, Health Secur,
doi:10.1089/hs.2020.0137Martineau, Jolliffe, Greenberg, Aloia, Bergman et al., Vitamin D supplementation to prevent acute respiratory infections: Individual participant data meta-analysis, Health Technol. Assess,
doi:10.3310/hta23020Mazess, Bischoff-Ferrari, Dawson-Hughes, Vitamin, Bolus Is Bogus-A Narrative Review, JBMR Plus,
doi:10.1002/jbm4.10567Mehta, Agrawal, Appanna, Chaudagar, Vitamin D improves corticosteroid efficacy and attenuates its side-effects in an animal model of asthma, Can. J. Physiol. Pharmacol,
doi:10.1139/cjpp-2014-0323Mendy, Apewokin, Wells, Morrow, Factors Associated with Hospitalization and Disease Severity in a Racially and Ethnically Diverse Population of COVID-19 Patients, medRxiv,
doi:10.1101/2020.06.25.20137323Munshi, Hussein, Toraih, Elshazli, Jardak et al., Vitamin D insufficiency as a potential culprit in critical COVID-19 patients, J. Med. Virol,
doi:10.1002/jmv.26360Murai, Fernandes, Sales, Pinto, Goessler et al., Effect of a Single High Dose of Vitamin D3 on Hospital Length of Stay in Patients with Moderate to Severe COVID-19: A Randomized Clinical Trial, JAMA,
doi:10.1001/jama.2020.26848Pal, Banerjee, Bhadada, Shetty, Singh et al., Vitamin D supplementation and clinical outcomes in COVID-19: A systematic review and meta-analysis, J. Endocrinol. Investig,
doi:10.1007/s40618-021-01614-4Panagiotou, Tee, Ihsan, Athar, Marchitelli et al., Low serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D (25[OH]D) levels in patients hospitalized with COVID-19 are associated with greater disease severity, Clin. Endocrinol,
doi:10.1111/cen.14276Pearce, Rhodes, Stocking, Pembrey, Van Veldhoven et al., Occupational differences in COVID-19 incidence, severity, and mortality in the United Kingdom: Available data and framework for analyses, Wellcome Open Res,
doi:10.12688/wellcomeopenres.16729.1Pecina, Merry, Park, Thacher, Vitamin D Status and Severe COVID-19 Disease Outcomes in Hospitalized Patients, J. Prim. Care Community Health,
doi:10.1177/21501327211041206Penna, Amuchastegui, Giarratana, Daniel, Vulcano et al., 1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3 selectively modulates tolerogenic properties in myeloid but not plasmacytoid dendritic cells, J. Immunol
Pizzini, Aichner, Sahanic, Böhm, Egger et al., Impact of Vitamin D Deficiency on COVID-19-A Prospective Analysis from the CovILD Registry, Nutrients
Pouramini, Kafi, Hassanzadeh, Vitamin D and COVID-19 infection; recent findings, J. Ren. Endocrinol
Radujkovic, Hippchen, Tiwari-Heckler, Dreher, Boxberger et al., Vitamin D Deficiency and Outcome of COVID-19 Patients, Nutrients,
doi:10.3390/nu12092757Raisi-Estabragh, Martineau, Curtis, Moon, Darling et al., Vitamin D and coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19): Rapid evidence review, Aging Clin. Exp. Res,
doi:10.1007/s40520-021-01894-zRastogi, Bhansali, Khare, Suri, Yaddanapudi et al., Short term, high-dose vitamin D supplementation for COVID-19 disease: A randomised, placebo-controlled, study (SHADE study), Postgrad. Med. J,
doi:10.1136/postgradmedj-2020-139065Razjouyan, Helmer, Lynch, Hanania, Klotman et al., Smoking Status and Factors associated with COVID-19 In-hospital Mortality among U.S. Veterans, Nicotine Tob. Res,
doi:10.1093/ntr/ntab223Reis, Fernandes, Sales, Santos, Dos Santos et al., Influence of vitamin D status on hospital length of stay and prognosis in hospitalized patients with moderate to severe COVID-19: A multicenter prospective cohort study, Am. J. Clin. Nutr,
doi:10.1093/ajcn/nqab151Santaolalla, Beckmann, Kibaru, Josephs, Van Hemelrijck et al., Association Between Vitamin D and Novel SARS-CoV-2 Respiratory Dysfunction-A Scoping Review of Current Evidence and Its Implication for COVID-19 Pandemic, Front. Physiol,
doi:10.3389/fphys.2020.564387Seal, Bertenthal, Carey, Impact of Low Vitamin D Levels on COVID19-Related Hospitalization and Mortality: Results From a National Cohort of Veterans Affairs Patients, Glob. Adv. Health Med,
doi:10.1177/21649561211003689Searing, Zhang, Murphy, Hauk, Goleva et al., Decreased serum vitamin D levels in children with asthma are associated with increased corticosteroid use, J. Allergy Clin. Immunol,
doi:10.1016/j.jaci.2010.03.008Shurtz-Swirski, Shkolnik, Shasha, Parathyroid hormone and the cellular immune system, Nephron,
doi:10.1159/000188538Skversky, Kumar, Abramowitz, Kaskel, Melamed, Association of glucocorticoid use and low 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels: Results from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES): 2001-2006, J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab,
doi:10.1210/jc.2011-1600Smith, Endothelial adhesion molecules and their role in inflammation, Can. J. Physiol. Pharmacol,
doi:10.1139/y93-012Soliman, Abdelaziz, Fathy, Impact of Vitamin D Therapy on the Progress COVID-19: Six Weeks Follow-Up Study of Vitamin D Deficient Elderly Diabetes Patients, Proc. Singap. Health,
doi:10.1177/20101058211041405Song, Ho, Schubert, Park, Posner et al., Phenome-wide association of 1809 phenotypes and COVID-19 disease progression in the Veterans Health Administration Million Veteran Program, PLoS ONE,
doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0251651Speeckaert, Speeckaert, Delanghe, Vitamin D Sufficiency and COVID-19: Is Vitamin D Binding Protein (and Its Polymorphism) the Missing Link?, Endocr. Pract,
doi:10.1016/j.eprac.2021.03.011Sterne, Murthy, Diaz, Slutsky, Villar et al., Association between Administration of Systemic Corticosteroids and Mortality among Critically Ill Patients with COVID-19: A Meta-analysis, JAMA,
doi:10.1001/jama.2020.17023Sundberg, An iterative method for solution of the likelihood equations for incomplete data from exponential families, Commun. Stat.-Simul. Comput,
doi:10.1080/03610917608812007Suzuki, Efird, Redding, Thompson, Jr et al., COVID-19-Associated Mortality in US Veterans with and without SARS-CoV-2 Infection, Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health
Szeto, Zucker, Lasota, Rubin, Walker et al., Vitamin D Status and COVID-19 Clinical Outcomes in Hospitalized Patients, Endocr. Res,
doi:10.1080/07435800.2020.1867162Sánchez-Zuno, González-Estevez, Matuz-Flores, Macedo-Ojeda, Hernández-Bello et al., Vitamin D Levels in COVID-19 Outpatients from Western Mexico: Clinical Correlation and Effect of Its Supplementation, J. Clin. Med,
doi:10.3390/jcm10112378Tahir, Zahra, Neutrophilia, StatPearls Publishing Copyright
Tan, Ho, Kalimuddin, Cherng, Teh et al., Cohort study to evaluate the effect of vitamin D, magnesium, and vitamin B(12) in combination on progression to severe outcomes in older patients with coronavirus (COVID-19), Nutrition,
doi:10.1016/j.nut.2020.111017Tehrani, Khabiri, Moradi, Mosavat, Khabiri, Evaluation of vitamin D levels in COVID-19 patients referred to Labafinejad hospital in Tehran and its relationship with disease severity and mortality, Clin. Nutr. ESPEN
Tran, Vu, Le, Pham, Phan et al., Understanding health seeking behaviors to inform COVID-19 surveillance and detection in resource-scarce settings, J. Glob. Health,
doi:10.7189/jogh.10.0203106Turrubiates-Hernández, Sánchez-Zuno, González-Estevez, Hernández-Bello, Macedo-Ojeda et al., Potential immunomodulatory effects of vitamin D in the prevention of severe coronavirus disease 2019: An ally for Latin America (Review), Int. J. Mol. Med,
doi:10.3892/ijmm.2021.4865Török, Lundahl, Hed, Lagercrantz, Diversity in regulation of adhesion molecules (Mac-1 and L-selectin) in monocytes and neutrophils from neonates and adults, Arch. Dis. Child,
doi:10.1136/adc.68.5_Spec_No.561Van Eeden, Miyagashima, Haley, Hogg, L-selectin expression increases on peripheral blood polymorphonuclear leukocytes during active marrow release, Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med,
doi:10.1164/ajrccm.151.2.7531098Vasheghani, Jannati, Baghaei, Rezaei, Aliyari et al., The relationship between serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels and the severity of COVID-19 disease and its mortality, Sci. Rep,
doi:10.1038/s41598-021-97017-9Vaughan, Trott, Sapkota, Premi, Roberts et al., Changes in 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels post-vitamin D supplementation in people of Black and Asian ethnicities and its implications during COVID-19 pandemic: A systematic review, J. Hum. Nutr. Diet,
doi:10.1111/jhn.12949Vitamin, Fact Sheet for Consumers
Weber, Toelboell, Chang, Tirrell, Saama et al., Mechanisms of glucocorticoid-induced down-regulation of neutrophil L-selectin in cattle: Evidence for effects at the gene-expression level and primarily on blood neutrophils, J. Leukoc. Biol,
doi:10.1189/jlb.1003505Wenban, Heer, Baktash, Kandiah, Katsanouli et al., Dexamethasone treatment may mitigate adverse effects of vitamin D deficiency in hospitalized COVID-19 patients, J. Med. Virol,
doi:10.1002/jmv.27215Xystrakis, Kusumakar, Boswell, Peek, Urry et al., Reversing the defective induction of IL-10-secreting regulatory T cells in glucocorticoid-resistant asthma patients, J. Clin. Investig,
doi:10.1172/JCI21759Ye, Tang, Liao, Shaw, Deng et al., Does Serum Vitamin D Level Affect COVID-19 Infection and Its Severity? A Case-Control Study, J. Am. Coll. Nutr,
doi:10.1080/07315724.2020.1826005Zella, Meyer, Nerenz, Lee, Martowicz et al., Multifunctional enhancers regulate mouse and human vitamin D receptor gene transcription, Mol. Endocrinol,
doi:10.1210/me.2009-0140Zoorob, Cender, A different look at corticosteroids, Am. Fam. Physician
DOI record:
{
"DOI": "10.3390/ijerph19010447",
"ISSN": [
"1660-4601"
],
"URL": "http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19010447",
"abstract": "<jats:p>This data-based cohort consisted of 26,508 (7%) United States veterans out of the 399,290 who tested positive for SARS-CoV-2 from 1 March to 10 September 2020. We aimed to assess the interaction of post-index vitamin D (Vit D) and corticosteroid (CRT) use on 30-day mortality among hospitalized and non-hospitalized patients with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). Combination Vit D and CRT drug use was assessed according to four multinomial pairs (−|+, −|−, +|+, +|−). Respective categorical effects were computed on a log-binomial scale as adjusted relative risk (aRR). Approximately 6% of veterans who tested positive for SARS-CoV-2 died within 30 days of their index date. Among hospitalized patients, a significantly decreased aRR was observed for the use of Vit D in the absence of CRTs relative to patients who received CRTs but not Vit D (aRR = 0.30; multiplicity corrected, p = 0.0004). Among patients receiving systemically administered CRTs (e.g., dexamethasone), the use of Vit D was associated with fewer deaths in hospitalized patients (aRR = 0.51) compared with non-hospitalized patients (aRR = 2.5) (P-for-Interaction = 0.0071). Evaluating the effect of modification of these compounds in the context of hospitalization may aid in the management of COVID-19 and provide a better understanding of the pathophysiological mechanisms underlying this and future infectious disease outbreaks.</jats:p>",
"alternative-id": [
"ijerph19010447"
],
"author": [
{
"affiliation": [],
"family": "Efird",
"given": "Jimmy T.",
"sequence": "first"
},
{
"affiliation": [],
"family": "Anderson",
"given": "Ethan J.",
"sequence": "additional"
},
{
"affiliation": [],
"family": "Jindal",
"given": "Charulata",
"sequence": "additional"
},
{
"affiliation": [],
"family": "Redding",
"given": "Thomas S.",
"sequence": "additional"
},
{
"affiliation": [],
"family": "Thompson",
"given": "Andrew D.",
"sequence": "additional"
},
{
"ORCID": "http://orcid.org/0000-0001-7359-0505",
"affiliation": [],
"authenticated-orcid": false,
"family": "Press",
"given": "Ashlyn M.",
"sequence": "additional"
},
{
"ORCID": "http://orcid.org/0000-0002-2668-2535",
"affiliation": [],
"authenticated-orcid": false,
"family": "Upchurch",
"given": "Julie",
"sequence": "additional"
},
{
"affiliation": [],
"family": "Williams",
"given": "Christina D.",
"sequence": "additional"
},
{
"affiliation": [],
"family": "Choi",
"given": "Yuk Ming",
"sequence": "additional"
},
{
"affiliation": [],
"family": "Suzuki",
"given": "Ayako",
"sequence": "additional"
}
],
"container-title": "International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health",
"container-title-short": "IJERPH",
"content-domain": {
"crossmark-restriction": false,
"domain": []
},
"created": {
"date-parts": [
[
2022,
1,
4
]
],
"date-time": "2022-01-04T03:51:50Z",
"timestamp": 1641268310000
},
"deposited": {
"date-parts": [
[
2022,
1,
4
]
],
"date-time": "2022-01-04T04:40:26Z",
"timestamp": 1641271226000
},
"indexed": {
"date-parts": [
[
2024,
3,
20
]
],
"date-time": "2024-03-20T11:53:13Z",
"timestamp": 1710935593442
},
"is-referenced-by-count": 8,
"issue": "1",
"issued": {
"date-parts": [
[
2021,
12,
31
]
]
},
"journal-issue": {
"issue": "1",
"published-online": {
"date-parts": [
[
2022,
1
]
]
}
},
"language": "en",
"license": [
{
"URL": "https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
"content-version": "vor",
"delay-in-days": 0,
"start": {
"date-parts": [
[
2021,
12,
31
]
],
"date-time": "2021-12-31T00:00:00Z",
"timestamp": 1640908800000
}
}
],
"link": [
{
"URL": "https://www.mdpi.com/1660-4601/19/1/447/pdf",
"content-type": "unspecified",
"content-version": "vor",
"intended-application": "similarity-checking"
}
],
"member": "1968",
"original-title": [],
"page": "447",
"prefix": "10.3390",
"published": {
"date-parts": [
[
2021,
12,
31
]
]
},
"published-online": {
"date-parts": [
[
2021,
12,
31
]
]
},
"publisher": "MDPI AG",
"reference": [
{
"DOI": "10.1097/MED.0000000000000108",
"doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
"key": "ref1"
},
{
"DOI": "10.2147/jir.S63898",
"doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
"key": "ref2"
},
{
"DOI": "10.1007/s11154-021-09679-5",
"doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
"key": "ref3"
},
{
"DOI": "10.1056/NEJMra070553",
"doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
"key": "ref4"
},
{
"DOI": "10.1016/j.clnu.2019.12.028",
"doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
"key": "ref5"
},
{
"DOI": "10.3390/nu13020411",
"doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
"key": "ref6"
},
{
"DOI": "10.1007/s40520-021-01894-z",
"doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
"key": "ref7"
},
{
"DOI": "10.1530/EJE-20-0665",
"doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
"key": "ref8"
},
{
"article-title": "Vitamine D et COVID-19",
"author": "Arthur",
"first-page": "721",
"journal-title": "Bull. Acad. Natl. Med.",
"key": "ref9",
"volume": "204",
"year": "2020"
},
{
"DOI": "10.1111/jhn.12949",
"doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
"key": "ref10"
},
{
"DOI": "10.1136/bmj.m1820",
"doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
"key": "ref11"
},
{
"DOI": "10.3892/ijmm.2021.4865",
"doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
"key": "ref12"
},
{
"article-title": "Recommendations for High Vitamin D Supplementation to help Fight the COVID-19 Pandemic and its Inclusion in National COVID-19 Management Guidelines",
"author": "Kishore",
"first-page": "6",
"journal-title": "Epidem. Int.",
"key": "ref13",
"volume": "6",
"year": "2021"
},
{
"DOI": "10.1002/jmv.26360",
"doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
"key": "ref14"
},
{
"DOI": "10.1093/jn/nxaa332",
"doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
"key": "ref15"
},
{
"DOI": "10.1016/j.clnesp.2021.01.014",
"doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
"key": "ref16"
},
{
"DOI": "10.1093/ajcn/nqab151",
"doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
"key": "ref17"
},
{
"DOI": "10.3390/nu13103596",
"doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
"key": "ref18"
},
{
"article-title": "The influence of vitamin D on COVID-19 outcomes",
"author": "Benskin",
"key": "ref19",
"series-title": "COVID-19 and Nutraceuticals: A Guidebook",
"year": "2021"
},
{
"DOI": "10.3390/nu13041339",
"doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
"key": "ref20"
},
{
"DOI": "10.1007/s40618-021-01614-4",
"doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
"key": "ref21"
},
{
"DOI": "10.1002/rmv.2269",
"doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
"key": "ref22"
},
{
"DOI": "10.1016/j.jcte.2016.04.004",
"doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
"key": "ref23"
},
{
"DOI": "10.1111/ijcp.14649",
"doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
"key": "ref24"
},
{
"DOI": "10.31989/bchd.v4i3.796",
"doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
"key": "ref25"
},
{
"DOI": "10.1016/j.clnu.2020.10.055",
"doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
"key": "ref26"
},
{
"DOI": "10.1016/j.nut.2020.111055",
"doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
"key": "ref27"
},
{
"DOI": "10.1186/s12879-021-06281-7",
"doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
"key": "ref28"
},
{
"DOI": "10.1089/hs.2020.0137",
"doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
"key": "ref29"
},
{
"DOI": "10.1136/postgradmedj-2020-138712",
"doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
"key": "ref30"
},
{
"DOI": "10.3390/nu12092757",
"doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
"key": "ref31"
},
{
"DOI": "10.1016/j.nut.2021.111408",
"doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
"key": "ref32"
},
{
"DOI": "10.1177/21501327211041206",
"doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
"key": "ref33"
},
{
"DOI": "10.1371/journal.pmed.1003605",
"doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
"key": "ref34"
},
{
"DOI": "10.1177/20101058211041405",
"doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
"key": "ref35"
},
{
"DOI": "10.1001/jama.2020.26848",
"doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
"key": "ref36"
},
{
"DOI": "10.1038/s41430-021-00984-5",
"doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
"key": "ref37"
},
{
"DOI": "10.1016/j.metabol.2021.154753",
"doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
"key": "ref38"
},
{
"DOI": "10.1093/advances/nmab012",
"doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
"key": "ref39"
},
{
"DOI": "10.3389/fphys.2020.564387",
"doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
"key": "ref40"
},
{
"DOI": "10.3390/jcm10112378",
"doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
"key": "ref41"
},
{
"DOI": "10.1111/nbu.12499",
"doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
"key": "ref42"
},
{
"DOI": "10.4269/ajtmh.20-1294",
"doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
"key": "ref43"
},
{
"DOI": "10.1080/07435800.2020.1867162",
"doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
"key": "ref44"
},
{
"DOI": "10.1007/s40618-020-01370-x",
"doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
"key": "ref45"
},
{
"DOI": "10.1016/j.medidd.2020.100064",
"doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
"key": "ref46"
},
{
"DOI": "10.1007/s00394-020-02411-0",
"doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
"key": "ref47"
},
{
"DOI": "10.3390/nu12092775",
"doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
"key": "ref48"
},
{
"DOI": "10.5578/tt.70027",
"doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
"key": "ref49"
},
{
"DOI": "10.22625/2072-6732-2020-12-3-21-27",
"doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
"key": "ref50"
},
{
"article-title": "Vitamin D Deficiency and ARDS after SARS-CoV-2 Infection",
"author": "Faul",
"first-page": "84",
"journal-title": "Ir. Med. J.",
"key": "ref51",
"volume": "113",
"year": "2020"
},
{
"DOI": "10.1093/ajcp/aqaa252",
"doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
"key": "ref52"
},
{
"DOI": "10.1080/07315724.2020.1826005",
"doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
"key": "ref53"
},
{
"DOI": "10.1016/j.virusres.2020.198148",
"doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
"key": "ref54"
},
{
"DOI": "10.1016/j.dsx.2021.102237",
"doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
"key": "ref55"
},
{
"DOI": "10.1002/jmv.27215",
"doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
"key": "ref56"
},
{
"DOI": "10.1164/ajrccm.185.11.1245",
"doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
"key": "ref57"
},
{
"DOI": "10.1139/cjpp-2014-0323",
"doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
"key": "ref58"
},
{
"key": "ref59"
},
{
"DOI": "10.1002/jcb.22645",
"doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
"key": "ref60"
},
{
"DOI": "10.1210/jc.2011-1600",
"doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
"key": "ref61"
},
{
"DOI": "10.1210/jc.2011-2757",
"doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
"key": "ref62"
},
{
"article-title": "A different look at corticosteroids",
"author": "Zoorob",
"first-page": "443",
"journal-title": "Am. Fam. Physician",
"key": "ref63",
"volume": "58",
"year": "1998"
},
{
"DOI": "10.1074/jbc.M111.244061",
"doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
"key": "ref64"
},
{
"DOI": "10.1210/me.2009-0140",
"doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
"key": "ref65"
},
{
"DOI": "10.1385/ENDO:17:2:109",
"doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
"key": "ref66"
},
{
"DOI": "10.1172/JCI21759",
"doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
"key": "ref67"
},
{
"DOI": "10.1016/j.jaci.2010.03.008",
"doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
"key": "ref68"
},
{
"DOI": "10.4161/tisb.23118",
"doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
"key": "ref69"
},
{
"DOI": "10.1021/pr200724e",
"doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
"key": "ref70"
},
{
"DOI": "10.4049/jimmunol.178.1.145",
"doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
"key": "ref71"
},
{
"DOI": "10.7326/M21-1991",
"doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
"key": "ref72"
},
{
"DOI": "10.1056/NEJMoa2021436",
"doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
"key": "ref73"
},
{
"DOI": "10.3390/ijerph18168486",
"doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
"key": "ref74"
},
{
"key": "ref75"
},
{
"key": "ref76",
"unstructured": "A Natural Language Processing System for National COVID-19 Surveillance in the US Department of Veterans Affairshttps://openreview.net/forum?id=ZQ_HvBxcdCv"
},
{
"DOI": "10.3390/metabo11110761",
"doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
"key": "ref77"
},
{
"article-title": "The Analysis of Case-control Studies",
"author": "Breslow",
"key": "ref78",
"series-title": "Statistical Methods in Cancer Research",
"volume": "Volume 1",
"year": "1980"
},
{
"author": "Bland",
"first-page": "464",
"key": "ref79",
"series-title": "Introduction to Medical Statistics",
"year": "2015"
},
{
"DOI": "10.1177/1176935120985132",
"doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
"key": "ref80"
},
{
"DOI": "10.1198/016214504000001907",
"doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
"key": "ref81"
},
{
"DOI": "10.1093/biomet/75.4.800",
"doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
"key": "ref82"
},
{
"DOI": "10.1080/03610917608812007",
"doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
"key": "ref83"
},
{
"DOI": "10.1016/j.eprac.2021.09.016",
"doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
"key": "ref84"
},
{
"DOI": "10.1097/MJT.0000000000001222",
"doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
"key": "ref85"
},
{
"DOI": "10.1038/s41598-021-90189-4",
"doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
"key": "ref86"
},
{
"DOI": "10.1016/j.jsbmb.2020.105771",
"doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
"key": "ref87"
},
{
"DOI": "10.3390/nu12113377",
"doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
"key": "ref88"
},
{
"DOI": "10.3390/nu12123799",
"doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
"key": "ref89"
},
{
"DOI": "10.3390/nu13010219",
"doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
"key": "ref90"
},
{
"DOI": "10.1016/j.jsbmb.2020.105751",
"doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
"key": "ref91"
},
{
"DOI": "10.3390/nu13061760",
"doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
"key": "ref92"
},
{
"DOI": "10.18632/aging.202307",
"doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
"key": "ref93"
},
{
"DOI": "10.1038/s41598-021-97017-9",
"doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
"key": "ref94"
},
{
"DOI": "10.1016/j.nut.2020.111017",
"doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
"key": "ref95"
},
{
"DOI": "10.1136/postgradmedj-2020-139065",
"doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
"key": "ref96"
},
{
"DOI": "10.1101/2020.11.08.20222638",
"doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
"key": "ref97"
},
{
"DOI": "10.1007/s40520-021-01831-0",
"doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
"key": "ref98"
},
{
"DOI": "10.1038/s41598-020-77093-z",
"doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
"key": "ref99"
},
{
"DOI": "10.20960/nh.03193",
"doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
"key": "ref100"
},
{
"DOI": "10.1101/2020.06.25.20137323",
"doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
"key": "ref101"
},
{
"DOI": "10.1111/cen.14276",
"doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
"key": "ref102"
},
{
"DOI": "10.23736/S0031-0808.21.04277-4",
"doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
"key": "ref103"
},
{
"DOI": "10.1177/21649561211003689",
"doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
"key": "ref104"
},
{
"DOI": "10.3390/nu13114047",
"doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
"key": "ref105"
},
{
"DOI": "10.1038/s41598-021-02701-5",
"doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
"key": "ref106"
},
{
"DOI": "10.1038/s41598-021-85809-y",
"doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
"key": "ref107"
},
{
"DOI": "10.1210/clinem/dgaa733",
"doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
"key": "ref108"
},
{
"DOI": "10.1152/ajpendo.00517.2020",
"doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
"key": "ref109"
},
{
"DOI": "10.34172/jre.2021.19",
"doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
"key": "ref110"
},
{
"DOI": "10.5530/jyp.2021.13s.77",
"doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
"key": "ref111"
},
{
"DOI": "10.1161/01.CIR.96.1.295",
"doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
"key": "ref112"
},
{
"DOI": "10.1002/jlb.57.2.317",
"doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
"key": "ref113"
},
{
"DOI": "10.1189/jlb.1003505",
"doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
"key": "ref114"
},
{
"DOI": "10.1139/y93-012",
"doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
"key": "ref115"
},
{
"DOI": "10.1164/ajrccm.151.2.7531098",
"doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
"key": "ref116"
},
{
"DOI": "10.1136/adc.68.5_Spec_No.561",
"doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
"key": "ref117"
},
{
"DOI": "10.1073/pnas.89.21.9991",
"doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
"key": "ref118"
},
{
"article-title": "Neutrophilia. StatPearls Publishing Copyright © 2021",
"author": "Tahir",
"key": "ref119",
"series-title": "StatPearls",
"year": "2021"
},
{
"DOI": "10.1001/jama.2020.17023",
"doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
"key": "ref120"
},
{
"DOI": "10.1126/science.abm0620",
"doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
"key": "ref121"
},
{
"DOI": "10.1002/jbm4.10567",
"doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
"key": "ref122"
},
{
"DOI": "10.3310/hta23020",
"doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
"key": "ref123"
},
{
"DOI": "10.7861/clinmed.2021-0035",
"doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
"key": "ref124"
},
{
"DOI": "10.1016/j.bone.2018.02.024",
"doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
"key": "ref125"
},
{
"DOI": "10.1001/jama.2019.11889",
"doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
"key": "ref126"
},
{
"DOI": "10.1038/ki.1990.147",
"doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
"key": "ref127"
},
{
"DOI": "10.1159/000188538",
"doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
"key": "ref128"
},
{
"DOI": "10.1038/ki.1993.255",
"doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
"key": "ref129"
},
{
"DOI": "10.1155/2010/418695",
"doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
"key": "ref130"
},
{
"DOI": "10.1093/ajcn/nqab390",
"doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
"key": "ref131"
},
{
"DOI": "10.1001/jama.2020.26850",
"doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
"key": "ref132"
},
{
"DOI": "10.1186/s12885-021-08577-y",
"doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
"key": "ref133"
},
{
"DOI": "10.1093/ntr/ntab223",
"doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
"key": "ref134"
},
{
"DOI": "10.1038/s41467-020-19478-2",
"doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
"key": "ref135"
},
{
"DOI": "10.1371/journal.pone.0251651",
"doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
"key": "ref136"
},
{
"DOI": "10.7326/M20-6979",
"doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
"key": "ref137"
},
{
"DOI": "10.12688/wellcomeopenres.16729.1",
"doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
"key": "ref138"
},
{
"key": "ref139"
},
{
"DOI": "10.1371/journal.pone.0246217",
"doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
"key": "ref140"
},
{
"DOI": "10.1093/cid/ciab419",
"doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
"key": "ref141"
},
{
"DOI": "10.7189/jogh.10.0203106",
"doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
"key": "ref142"
},
{
"DOI": "10.1016/j.amepre.2012.07.029",
"doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
"key": "ref143"
},
{
"DOI": "10.3390/biom10071032",
"doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
"key": "ref144"
},
{
"DOI": "10.1177/0963689717714098",
"doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
"key": "ref145"
},
{
"DOI": "10.1093/milmed/usab402",
"doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
"key": "ref146"
},
{
"DOI": "10.1111/jgs.12495",
"doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
"key": "ref147"
},
{
"DOI": "10.3390/nu13113680",
"doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
"key": "ref148"
},
{
"DOI": "10.1016/j.eprac.2021.03.011",
"doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
"key": "ref149"
},
{
"DOI": "10.1530/EC-18-0184",
"doi-asserted-by": "publisher",
"key": "ref150"
}
],
"reference-count": 150,
"references-count": 150,
"relation": {},
"resource": {
"primary": {
"URL": "https://www.mdpi.com/1660-4601/19/1/447"
}
},
"score": 1,
"short-title": [],
"source": "Crossref",
"subject": [
"Health, Toxicology and Mutagenesis",
"Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health"
],
"subtitle": [],
"title": "The Interaction of Vitamin D and Corticosteroids: A Mortality Analysis of 26,508 Veterans Who Tested Positive for SARS-CoV-2",
"type": "journal-article",
"volume": "19"
}
