Supplementary Data — Probiotics reduce COVID-19 risk: real-time meta analysis of 29 studies

@CovidAnalysis, November 2025, Version 31V31
0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1 1.25 1.5 1.75 2+ Haran (RCT) 67% 0.33 [0.01-8.16] death 0/174 1/176 Improvement, RR [CI] Treatment Control Haran (RCT) 60% 0.40 [0.08-2.06] hosp. 2/174 5/176 Haran (RCT) 50% 0.50 [0.21-1.20] hosp./ER/UC 7/169 15/181 Haran (RCT) 20% 0.80 [0.61-1.04] recov. time 169 (n) 172 (n) Gutiérre.. (DB RCT) 35% 0.65 [0.53-0.80] no recov. 69/147 105/146 Veterini 29% 0.71 [0.41-1.22] viral time 15 (n) 15 (n) Navarro-Ló.. (RCT) 33% 0.67 [0.43-1.05] no recov. 14/24 13/15 Navarro-Ló.. (RCT) 53% 0.47 [0.20-1.08] no recov. 6/24 8/15 Navarro-Ló.. (RCT) 20% 0.80 [0.65-0.98] recovery 24 (n) 15 (n) Navarro-Ló.. (RCT) 26% 0.74 [0.54-1.01] recovery 24 (n) 15 (n) Hassan (RCT) 80% 0.20 [0.02-1.65] hosp. 1/50 5/50 Hassan (RCT) 18% 0.82 [0.56-1.21] no recov. 23/50 28/50 Kolesnyk (DB RCT) 60% 0.40 [0.18-0.90] no recov. 6/34 16/36 Kolesnyk (DB RCT) 21% 0.79 [0.63-0.98] recov. time 34 (n) 36 (n) Kolesnyk (DB RCT) 68% 0.32 [0.13-0.78] PASC 5/34 16/35 PLATEAU Yamamoto (DB RCT) 26% 0.74 [0.51-1.07] no recov. 45 (n) 46 (n) PLATEAU Yamamoto (DB RCT) 62% 0.38 [0.09-1.73] viral+ 45 (n) 46 (n) d'Ettorre 87% 0.13 [0.01-2.33] death 0/28 4/42 d'Ettorre 77% 0.23 [0.01-4.63] ventilation 0/28 2/42 d'Ettorre 88% 0.12 [0.02-0.61] progression 28 (n) 42 (n) Ceccarelli 64% 0.36 [0.18-0.68] death 10/88 34/112 Ceccarelli 15% 0.85 [0.48-1.50] ICU 16/88 24/112 Shah (RCT) 11% 0.89 [0.75-1.06] recov. time 30 (n) 30 (n) CT​1​ Shah (RCT) 11% 0.89 [0.76-1.05] hosp. time 30 (n) 30 (n) CT​1​ Shah (RCT) 83% 0.17 [0.04-0.68] no recov. 2/30 12/30 CT​1​ Shah (RCT) 4% 0.96 [0.80-1.16] no recov. 26/30 27/30 CT​1​ Li -12% 1.12 [0.74-1.69] no disch. 30/123 41/188 Li -60% 1.60 [1.21-2.11] no disch. 123 (n) 188 (n) Li -35% 1.35 [1.13-1.62] viral time 123 (n) 188 (n) Zhang 14% 0.86 [0.77-0.96] hosp. time 150 (n) 150 (n) Zhang 14% 0.86 [0.75-0.98] recov. time 150 (n) 150 (n) Zhang 17% 0.83 [0.75-0.93] viral time 150 (n) 150 (n) Ceccarelli 70% 0.30 [0.01-7.02] death 0/40 1/29 Ceccarelli 82% 0.18 [0.02-1.54] ICU 1/40 4/29 Ivashkin (RCT) -2% 1.02 [0.26-3.97] death 4/99 4/101 Ivashkin (RCT) 18% 0.82 [0.23-2.95] ventilation 4/99 5/101 Ivashkin (RCT) 27% 0.73 [0.24-2.22] ICU 5/99 7/101 Ivashkin (RCT) 5% 0.95 [0.84-1.08] recov. time 99 (n) 101 (n) Zhang 65% 0.35 [0.02-8.30] ventilation 0/25 1/30 Zhang 67% 0.33 [0.10-1.05] antibody 3/25 11/30 Saviano (RCT) 67% 0.33 [0.01-7.95] death 0/40 1/40 Saviano (RCT) 86% 0.14 [0.01-2.68] ICU 0/40 3/40 Saviano (RCT) 26% 0.74 [0.30-1.83] hosp. time 40 (n) 40 (n) Trinchieri 78% 0.22 [0.03-1.93] death 1/21 3/14 Trinchieri 78% 0.22 [0.09-0.55] misc. 4/21 12/14 Trinchieri 10% 0.90 [0.76-1.08] misc. 19/21 14/14 Di Pierro (RCT) 62% 0.38 [0.11-1.25] death 3/25 8/25 Di Pierro (RCT) 0% 1.00 [0.45-2.24] ICU 8/25 8/25 Giancola (DB RCT) 15% 0.85 [0.06-12.9] death 1/27 1/23 Giancola (DB RCT) 33% 0.67 [0.30-1.48] no recov. 22 (n) 20 (n) Giancola (DB RCT) -21% 1.21 [0.31-4.77] no recov. 4/22 3/20 Giancola (DB RCT) 70% 0.30 [0.07-1.33] no recov. 2/22 6/20 Giancola (DB RCT) 74% 0.26 [0.06-1.11] no recov. 2/22 7/20 Giancola (DB RCT) -14% 1.14 [0.56-2.30] no recov. 10/22 8/20 Louca 8% 0.92 [0.85-0.99] cases population-based cohort Di Pierro (RCT) 98% 0.02 [0.00-0.33] cases 0/64 24/64 COVIDENCE UK Holt 30% 0.70 [0.45-1.10] cases 20/909 426/14,318 Ahanchian (DB RCT) 73% 0.27 [0.03-2.25] symp. case 1/29 4/31 Ahanchian (DB RCT) 85% 0.15 [0.01-2.73] cases 0/29 3/31 Fernánde.. (DB RCT) -2% 1.02 [0.06-16.1] death 1/98 1/100 Fernánde.. (DB RCT) -38% 1.38 [0.48-3.97] recov. time 10 (n) 7 (n) Fernánde.. (DB RCT) -28% 1.28 [0.35-4.61] severe case 5/98 4/100 Fernánde.. (DB RCT) -2% 1.02 [0.37-2.80] symp. case 7/98 7/100 Fernánde.. (DB RCT) -35% 1.35 [0.53-3.44] cases 11/98 8/100 PROTECT-EHC Wischme.. (DB RCT) 33% 0.67 [0.38-1.17] m/s case 16/91 24/91 PROTECT-EHC Wischme.. (DB RCT) 38% 0.62 [0.41-0.93] symp. case 24/91 39/91 PROTECT-EHC Wischme.. (DB RCT) 27% 0.73 [0.37-1.45] recov. time 91 (n) 91 (n) PROTECT-EHC Wischme.. (DB RCT) 43% 0.57 [0.25-1.30] cases 8/91 14/91 Rodrigue.. (DB RCT) 9% 0.91 [0.12-6.70] cases 2/127 2/128 Catinean 40% 0.60 [0.41-0.88] recovery 60 (n) 60 (n) Catinean 38% 0.62 [0.42-0.93] fever 60 (n) 60 (n) Di Pierro 78% 0.22 [0.07-0.67] cases 186 (n) 101 (n) Sarlin (DB RCT) 33% 0.67 [0.11-3.98] cases 2/413 3/414 Probiotics COVID-19 outcomes c19early.org November 2025 ​1​ CT: study uses combined treatment Favors probiotics Favors control
Fig. S1. All outcomes.
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Fig. S2. Comparison of results for RCTs versus observational studies. For COVID-19 treatments, there is no significant difference between the results of RCTs and observational studies. Observational studies do not systematically over or underestimate efficacy. For high-cost treatments, there is a non-significant trend towards RCTs showing greater efficacy.