Discovery of re-purposed drugs that slow SARS-CoV-2 replication in human cells

Pickard et al., PLOS Pathogens, doi:10.1371/journal.ppat.1009840, Sep 2021

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https://c19early.org/pickard.html

Vitamin D for COVID-19

8th treatment shown to reduce risk in October 2020, now with p < 0.00000000001 from 125 studies, recognized in 18 countries.

Lower risk for mortality, ICU, hospitalization, progression, recovery, cases, and viral clearance.

No treatment is 100% effective. Protocols combine treatments.

5,700+ studies for 169 treatments. c19early.org

In Vitro studying identifying 35 compounds that inhibit SARS-CoV-2 in Vero cells and hepatocytes when treated prior to infection, and several compounds that slow replication when treated after infection: vitamin D, amodiaquine, atovaquone, bedaquiline, ebastine, LY2835219, manidipine, and panobinosta. Authors use a nano-luciferase tagged version of the virus to quantify viral load.

25 preclinical studies support the efficacy of vitamin D for COVID-19:

9 In Silico studies1-9

13 In Vitro studies10-22

3 In Vivo animal studies14,18,23

Vitamin D has been identified by the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) as having sufficient evidence for a causal relationship between intake and optimal immune system function24-27. Vitamin D inhibits SARS-CoV-2 replication in vitro14,21, mitigates lung inflammation, damage, and lethality in mice with an MHV-3 model for β-CoV respiratory infections14,21, reduces SARS-CoV-2 replication in nasal epithelial cells via increased type I interferon expression17, downregulates proinflammatory cytokines IL-1β and TNF-α in SARS-CoV-2 spike protein-stimulated cells13, attenuates nucleocapsid protein-induced hyperinflammation by inactivating the NLRP3 inflammasome through the VDR-BRCC3 signaling pathway18, may be neuroprotective by protecting the blood-brain barrier, reducing neuroinflammation, and via immunomodulatory effects28, may mitigate hyperinflammation and cytokine storm by upregulating TLR10 expression which downregulates proinflammatory cytokines10, downregulates ACE2 and TMPRSS2 in human trophoblasts and minimizes spike protein-induced inflammation16, may minimize cytokine storm by dampening excessive cytokine production1, minimizes platelet aggregation mediated by SARS-CoV-2 spike protein via inhibiting integrin αIIbβ3 outside-in signaling12, and improves regulatory immune cell levels and control of proinflammatory cytokines in severe COVID-1929. Calcifediol inhibits SARS-CoV-2 papain-like protease (PLpro), a critical enzyme for viral replication11. Symptomatic COVID-19 is associated with a lower frequency of natural killer (NK) cells and vitamin D has been shown to improve NK cell activity30,31.

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Study covers vitamin D and atovaquone.

1. Alzahrani, A., A new investigation into the molecular mechanism of cholecalciferol towards reducing cytokines storm, Octahedron Drug Research, doi:10.21608/odr.2024.308273.1043.ekb.eg, doi.org.

2. Haque et al., Exploring potential therapeutic candidates against COVID-19: a molecular docking study, Discover Molecules, doi:10.1007/s44345-024-00005-5.springer.com, doi.org.

3. Morales-Bayuelo et al., New findings on ligand series used as SARS-CoV-2 virus inhibitors within the frameworks of molecular docking, molecular quantum similarity and chemical reactivity indices, F1000Research, doi:10.12688/f1000research.123550.3.f1000research.com, doi.org.

4. Chellasamy et al., Docking and molecular dynamics studies of human ezrin protein with a modelled SARS-CoV-2 endodomain and their interaction with potential invasion inhibitors, Journal of King Saud University - Science, doi:10.1016/j.jksus.2022.102277.sciencedirect.com, doi.org.

5. Pandya et al., Unravelling Vitamin B12 as a potential inhibitor against SARS-CoV-2: A computational approach, Informatics in Medicine Unlocked, doi:10.1016/j.imu.2022.100951.sciencedirect.com, doi.org.

6. Mansouri et al., The impact of calcitriol and estradiol on the SARS-CoV-2 biological activity: a molecular modeling approach, Scientific Reports, doi:10.1038/s41598-022-04778-y.nature.com, doi.org.

7. Song et al., Vitamin D3 and its hydroxyderivatives as promising drugs against COVID-19: a computational study, Journal of Biomolecular Structure and Dynamics, doi:10.1080/07391102.2021.1964601.tandfonline.com, doi.org.

8. Qayyum et al., Vitamin D and lumisterol novel metabolites can inhibit SARS-CoV-2 replication machinery enzymes, Endocrinology and Metabolism, doi:10.1152/ajpendo.00174.2021.physiology.org, doi.org.

9. Al-Mazaideh et al., Vitamin D is a New Promising Inhibitor to the Main Protease (Mpro) of COVID-19 by Molecular Docking, Journal of Pharmaceutical Research International, doi:10.9734/jpri/2021/v33i29B31603.journaljpri.com, doi.org.

10. Knez et al., TLR10 overexpression modulates immune response in A549 lung epithelial cells challenged with SARS-CoV-2 S and N proteins, Frontiers in Immunology, doi:10.3389/fimmu.2024.1490478.frontiersin.org, doi.org.

11. Chen et al., In Vitro Characterization of Inhibition Function of Calcifediol to the Protease Activity of SARS-COV-2 PLpro, Journal of Medical Virology, doi:10.1002/jmv.70085.wiley.com, doi.org.

12. Wang et al., 1,25‐Dihydroxyvitamin D3 attenuates platelet aggregation potentiated by SARS‐CoV‐2 spike protein via inhibiting integrin αIIbβ3 outside‐in signaling, Cell Biochemistry and Function, doi:10.1002/cbf.4039.wiley.com, doi.org.

13. Alcalá-Santiago et al., Disentangling the Immunomodulatory Effects of Vitamin D on the SARS-CoV-2 Virus by In Vitro Approaches, The 14th European Nutrition Conference FENS 2023, doi:10.3390/proceedings2023091415.mdpi.com, doi.org.

14. Campolina-Silva et al., Dietary Vitamin D Mitigates Coronavirus-Induced Lung Inflammation and Damage in Mice, Viruses, doi:10.3390/v15122434.mdpi.com, doi.org.

15. Moatasim et al., Potent Antiviral Activity of Vitamin B12 against Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2, Middle East Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus, and Human Coronavirus 229E, Microorganisms, doi:10.3390/microorganisms11112777.mdpi.com, doi.org.

16. Vargas-Castro et al., Calcitriol prevents SARS-CoV spike-induced inflammation in human trophoblasts through downregulating ACE2 and TMPRSS2 expression, The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, doi:10.1016/j.jsbmb.2024.106625.sciencedirect.com, doi.org.

17. Sposito et al., Age differential CD13 and interferon expression in airway epithelia affect SARS-CoV-2 infection - effects of vitamin D, Mucosal Immunology, doi:10.1016/j.mucimm.2023.08.002.nih.gov, doi.org.

18. Chen (B) et al., Vitamin D3 attenuates SARS‐CoV‐2 nucleocapsid protein‐caused hyperinflammation by inactivating the NLRP3 inflammasome through the VDR‐BRCC3 signaling pathway in vitro and in vivo, MedComm, doi:10.1002/mco2.318.wiley.com, doi.org.

19. Rybakovsky et al., Calcitriol modifies tight junctions, improves barrier function, and reduces TNF‐α‐induced barrier leak in the human lung‐derived epithelial cell culture model, 16HBE 14o‐, Physiological Reports, doi:10.14814/phy2.15592.wiley.com, doi.org.

20. DiGuilio et al., The multiphasic TNF-α-induced compromise of Calu-3 airway epithelial barrier function, Experimental Lung Research, doi:10.1080/01902148.2023.2193637.tandfonline.com, doi.org.

21. Pickard et al., Discovery of re-purposed drugs that slow SARS-CoV-2 replication in human cells, PLOS Pathogens, doi:10.1371/journal.ppat.1009840.plos.org, doi.org.

22. Mok et al., Calcitriol, the active form of vitamin D, is a promising candidate for COVID-19 prophylaxis, bioRxiv, doi:10.1101/2020.06.21.162396.biorxiv.org, doi.org.

23. Fernandes de Souza et al., Lung Inflammation Induced by Inactivated SARS-CoV-2 in C57BL/6 Female Mice Is Controlled by Intranasal Instillation of Vitamin D, Cells, doi:10.3390/cells12071092.mdpi.com, doi.org.

24. Galmés et al., Suboptimal Consumption of Relevant Immune System Micronutrients Is Associated with a Worse Impact of COVID-19 in Spanish Populations, Nutrients, doi:10.3390/nu14112254.mdpi.com, doi.org.

25. Galmés (B) et al., Current State of Evidence: Influence of Nutritional and Nutrigenetic Factors on Immunity in the COVID-19 Pandemic Framework, Nutrients, doi:10.3390/nu12092738.mdpi.com, doi.org.

26. EFSA, Scientific Opinion on the substantiation of a health claim related to vitamin D and contribution to the normal function of the immune system pursuant to Article 14 of Regulation (EC) No 1924/2006, EFSA Journal, doi:10.2903/j.efsa.2015.4096.europa.eu, doi.org.

27. EFSA (B), Scientific Opinion on the substantiation of health claims related to vitamin D and normal function of the immune system and inflammatory response (ID 154, 159), maintenance of normal muscle function (ID 155) and maintenance of normal cardiovascular function (ID 159) pursuant to Article 13(1) of Regulation (E, EFSA Journal, doi:10.2903/j.efsa.2010.1468.wiley.com, doi.org.

28. Gotelli et al., Understanding the immune-endocrine effects of vitamin D in SARS-CoV-2 infection: a role in protecting against neurodamage?, Neuroimmunomodulation, doi:10.1159/000533286.karger.com, doi.org.

29. Saheb Sharif-Askari et al., Increased blood immune regulatory cells in severe COVID-19 with autoantibodies to type I interferons, Scientific Reports, doi:10.1038/s41598-023-43675-w.nature.com, doi.org.

30. Graydon et al., High baseline frequencies of natural killer cells are associated with asymptomatic SARS-CoV-2 infection, Current Research in Immunology, doi:10.1016/j.crimmu.2023.100064.sciencedirect.com, doi.org.

31. Oh et al., Vitamin D and Exercise Are Major Determinants of Natural Killer Cell Activity, Which Is Age- and Gender-Specific, Frontiers in Immunology, doi:10.3389/fimmu.2021.594356.frontiersin.org, doi.org.

Pickard et al., 9 Sep 2021, peer-reviewed, 7 authors.

In Vitro studies are an important part of preclinical research, however results may be very different in vivo.

This Paper Vitamin D All

Discovery of re-purposed drugs that slow SARS-CoV-2 replication in human cells

Adam Pickard, Ben C Calverley, Joan Chang, Richa Garva, Sara Gago, Yinhui Lu, Karl E Kadler

PLOS Pathogens, doi:10.1371/journal.ppat.1009840

COVID-19 vaccines based on the Spike protein of SARS-CoV-2 have been developed that appear to be largely successful in stopping infection. However, therapeutics that can help manage the disease are still required until immunity has been achieved globally. The identification of repurposed drugs that stop SARS-CoV-2 replication could have enormous utility in stemming the disease. Here, using a nano-luciferase tagged version of the virus (SARS-CoV-2-ΔOrf7a-NLuc) to quantitate viral load, we evaluated a range of human cell types for their ability to be infected and support replication of the virus, and performed a screen of 1971 FDA-approved drugs. Hepatocytes, kidney glomerulus, and proximal tubule cells were particularly effective in supporting SARS-CoV-2 replication, which is in-line with reported proteinuria and liver damage in patients with COVID-19. Using the nano-luciferase as a measure of virus replication we identified 35 drugs that reduced replication in Vero cells and human hepatocytes when treated prior to SARS-CoV-2 infection and found amodiaquine, atovaquone, bedaquiline, ebastine, LY2835219, manidipine, panobinostat, and vitamin D3 to be effective in slowing SARS-CoV-2 replication in human cells when used to treat infected cells. In conclusion, our study has identified strong candidates for drug repurposing, which could prove powerful additions to the treatment of COVID.

Generation of functional SARS-CoV-2 virus DNA encoding the genome of SARS-CoV-2 and SARS-CoV-2-ΔOrf7a-NLuc were purchased from Vectorbuilder Inc. (Chicago, US). Transfection of DNA encoding the viruses failed to generate replicative virus when electroporated into 293T cells. We therefore produced RNA molecules which encoded the virus in vitro. Briefly, virus encoding DNA (1 μg) was transcribed using T7 mMessenger mMachine (Thermo) with a GTP:Cap ratio of 2:1 used in a 20 μL reaction. In addition, RNA encoding the SARS-CoV-2 nucleocapsid was also generated by PCR using primers P1 and P2 (S5 Table ) . It has been reported that this aids the recovery of replicative virus [18] . Viral RNA genomes (10 μl) and 2.5 μL nucleocapsid RNA were electroporated into 293T cells within the BSL3 laboratory. Viral RNAs were electroporated (5,000,000 cells, 1100 V, 20 ms and 2 pulses) and grown in T75 cm 2 flasks and 24 well plates. Cells grown in 24 well plates for 24-120 hrs were used to monitor changes in NLuc activity. Virus production, maintenance and assessment of titer Culture medium was collected from 293T cells 6 days after electroporation. This virus (P0) was used to infect cells of interest. As virus replication was slow in 293T cells, virus stocks were maintained by passage in Vero cells grown in DMEM supplemented with 2% FBS. Medium (1 mL) was used to infect Vero cells in order to generate P1 virus. Replication was assessed by measuring NLuc activity over 10 days. For..

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