Vitamin D Status and Incidence of SARS-CoV-2 Reinfections in the Borriana COVID-19 Cohort: A Population-Based Prospective Cohort Study

DOI record: { "DOI": "10.3390/tropicalmed10040098", "ISSN": [ "2414-6366" ], "URL": "http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/tropicalmed10040098", "abstract": "<jats:p>A deficient vitamin D (VitD) status has been associated with SARS-CoV-2 infections, severity, and mortality. However, this status related to SARS-CoV-2 reinfections has been studied little. Our aim was to quantify the risk of reinfections considering VitD status before reinfection. Methods: We performed a population-based prospective cohort study in Borriana (Valencia Community, Spain) during 2020–2023, measuring 25-hydroxyvitamin D [25(OH)D] levels by electrochemiluminescence. Cox proportional hazards models were employed. Results: Of a total of 644 SARS-CoV-2 cases with confirmed laboratory tests, 378 (58.9%) were included in our study, with an average age of 38.8 years; 241 were females (63.8%), and 127 reinfections occurred (33.6%). SARS-CoV-2 reinfection incidence rates per 1000 person-days by VitD status were 0.50 for a deficient status (&lt;20 ng/mL), 0.50 for an insufficient status (20–29 ng/mL), and 0.37 for a sufficient status (≥30 ng/mL). Compared with a sufficient VitD status, adjusted hazard ratios were 1.79 (95% confidence interval [CI] 0.89–3.59) for a deficient status and 1.59 (95% CI 1.06–2.38) for an insufficient status with a significant inverse dose–response (p = 0.02). These results can help improve nutritional actions against SARS-CoV-2 reinfections. Conclusions: These results suggest that a VitD status lower than 30 ng/mL showed a higher risk of SARS-CoV-2 reinfection. Achieving and maintaining a sufficient VitD status is recommended to prevent reinfections.</jats:p>", "alternative-id": [ "tropicalmed10040098" ], "author": [ { "affiliation": [ { "name": "Medical Direction University Hospital de la Plana, 12540 Vila-Real, Spain" } ], "family": "Domènech-Montoliu", "given": "Salvador", "sequence": "first" }, { "affiliation": [ { "name": "Clinical Analysis Service University Hospital de la Plana, 12540 Vila-Real, Spain" } ], "family": "López-Diago", "given": "Laura", "sequence": "additional" }, { "affiliation": [ { "name": "Clinical Analysis Service University Hospital de la Plana, 12540 Vila-Real, Spain" } ], "family": "Aleixandre-Gorriz", "given": "Isabel", "sequence": "additional" }, { "ORCID": "https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3955-8234", "affiliation": [ { "name": "Microbiology Service University Hospital de la Plana, 12540 Vila-Real, Spain" } ], "authenticated-orcid": false, "family": "Pérez-Olaso", "given": "Óscar", "sequence": "additional" }, { "ORCID": "https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3684-7786", "affiliation": [ { "name": "Emergency Service University Hospital de la Plana, 12540 Vila-Real, Spain" } ], "authenticated-orcid": false, "family": "Sala-Trull", "given": "Diego", "sequence": "additional" }, { "affiliation": [ { "name": "Health Centers I and II, 12530 Borriana, Spain" } ], "family": "Rio-González", "given": "Alba Del", "sequence": "additional" }, { "affiliation": [ { "name": "Public Health Center, 12003 Castelló de la Plana, Spain" } ], "family": "Pac-Sa", "given": "Maria Rosario", "sequence": "additional" }, { "ORCID": "https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9629-1601", "affiliation": [ { "name": "Emergency Service University Hospital de la Plana, 12540 Vila-Real, Spain" } ], "authenticated-orcid": false, "family": "Sánchez-Urbano", "given": "Manuel", "sequence": "additional" }, { "affiliation": [ { "name": "Emergency Service University Hospital de la Plana, 12540 Vila-Real, Spain" } ], "family": "Satorres-Martinez", "given": "Paloma", "sequence": "additional" }, { "affiliation": [ { "name": "Nursing Service University Hospital de la Plana, 12540 Vila-Real, Spain" } ], "family": "Casanova-Suarez", "given": "Juan", "sequence": "additional" }, { "affiliation": [ { "name": "Emergency Service University Hospital de la Plana, 12540 Vila-Real, Spain" } ], "family": "Notari-Rodriguez", "given": "Cristina", "sequence": "additional" }, { "affiliation": [ { "name": "Emergency Service University Hospital de la Plana, 12540 Vila-Real, Spain" } ], "family": "Ruiz-Puig", "given": "Raquel", "sequence": "additional" }, { "affiliation": [ { "name": "Emergency Service University Hospital de la Plana, 12540 Vila-Real, Spain" } ], "family": "Badenes-Marques", "given": "Gema", "sequence": "additional" }, { "affiliation": [ { "name": "Carinyena Health Center, 12540 Vila-Real, Spain" } ], "family": "Aparisi-Esteve", "given": "Laura", "sequence": "additional" }, { "affiliation": [ { "name": "Department Medicine, Universidad CEU Cardenal Herrera, 12006 Castelló de la Plana, Spain" } ], "family": "Domènech-León", "given": "Carmen", "sequence": "additional" }, { "affiliation": [ { "name": "Public Health Center, 12003 Castelló de la Plana, Spain" } ], "family": "Romeu-Garcia", "given": "Maria Angeles", "sequence": "additional" }, { "ORCID": "https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1071-0984", "affiliation": [ { "name": "Public Health Center, 12003 Castelló de la Plana, Spain" }, { "name": "Epidemiology and Public Health (CIBERESP), 28029 Madrid, Spain" }, { "name": "Department of Health Science, Public University Navarra, 31006 Pamplona, Spain" } ], "authenticated-orcid": false, "family": "Arnedo-Pena", "given": "Alberto", "sequence": "additional" } ], "container-title": "Tropical Medicine and Infectious Disease", "container-title-short": "TropicalMed", "content-domain": { "crossmark-restriction": false, "domain": [] }, "created": { "date-parts": [ [ 2025, 4, 10 ] ], "date-time": "2025-04-10T16:49:01Z", "timestamp": 1744303741000 }, "deposited": { "date-parts": [ [ 2025, 4, 10 ] ], "date-time": "2025-04-10T16:58:21Z", "timestamp": 1744304301000 }, "indexed": { "date-parts": [ [ 2025, 4, 11 ] ], "date-time": "2025-04-11T04:16:14Z", "timestamp": 1744344974047, "version": "3.40.4" }, "is-referenced-by-count": 0, "issue": "4", "issued": { "date-parts": [ [ 2025, 4, 6 ] ] }, "journal-issue": { "issue": "4", "published-online": { "date-parts": [ [ 2025, 4 ] ] } }, "language": "en", "license": [ { "URL": "https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "content-version": "vor", "delay-in-days": 0, "start": { "date-parts": [ [ 2025, 4, 6 ] ], "date-time": "2025-04-06T00:00:00Z", "timestamp": 1743897600000 } } ], "link": [ { "URL": "https://www.mdpi.com/2414-6366/10/4/98/pdf", "content-type": "unspecified", "content-version": "vor", "intended-application": "similarity-checking" } ], "member": "1968", "original-title": [], "page": "98", "prefix": "10.3390", "published": { "date-parts": [ [ 2025, 4, 6 ] ] }, "published-online": { "date-parts": [ [ 2025, 4, 6 ] ] }, "publisher": "MDPI AG", "reference": [ { "DOI": "10.20944/preprints202003.0235.v2", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "key": "ref_1", "unstructured": "Grant, W.B., Lahore, H., McDonnell, S.L., Baggerly, C.A., French, C.B., Aliano, J.L., and Bhattoa, H.P. (2020). Evidence that vitamin D supplementation could reduce risk of influenza and COVID-19 infections and deaths. Nutrients, 12." }, { "DOI": "10.4103/ijp.IJP_654_20", "article-title": "Evidences suggesting a possible role of Vitamin D in COVID 19: The missing link", "author": "Singh", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "394", "journal-title": "Indian J. Pharmacol.", "key": "ref_2", "volume": "53", "year": "2021" }, { "DOI": "10.1016/j.metabol.2020.154322", "article-title": "Commentary. Eliminating vitamin D deficiency during the COVID-19 pandemic: A call to action", "author": "Manson", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "154322", "journal-title": "Metabolism", "key": "ref_3", "volume": "112", "year": "2020" }, { "DOI": "10.1136/bmj.i6583", "article-title": "Vitamin D supplementation to prevent acute respiratory tract infections: Systematic review and meta-analysis of individual participant data", "author": "Martineau", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "i6583", "journal-title": "BMJ", "key": "ref_4", "volume": "356", "year": "2017" }, { "DOI": "10.1371/journal.pmed.1002907", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "key": "ref_5", "unstructured": "Aibana, O., Huang, C.C., Aboud, S., Arnedo-Pena, A., Becerra, M.C., Bellido-Blasco, J.B., Bhosale, R., Calderon, R., Chiang, S., and Contreras, C. (2019). Vitamin D status and risk of incident tuberculosis disease: A nested case-control study, systematic review, and individual-participant data meta-analysis. PLoS Med., 16." }, { "DOI": "10.3390/nu12113361", "article-title": "Evidence regarding vitamin D and risk of COVID-19 and its severity", "author": "Mercola", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "3361", "journal-title": "Nutrients", "key": "ref_6", "volume": "31", "year": "2020" }, { "DOI": "10.4178/epih.e2021074", "article-title": "The role of vitamin D deficiency on COVID-19: A systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies", "author": "Kaya", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "e2021074", "journal-title": "Epidemiol. Health", "key": "ref_7", "volume": "43", "year": "2021" }, { "DOI": "10.3389/fnut.2021.754539", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "key": "ref_8", "unstructured": "Akbar, M.R., Wibowo, A., Pranata, R., and Setiabudiawan, B. (2021). Low serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D (Vitamin D) level is associated with susceptibility to COVID-19, severity, and mortality: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Front. Nutr., 8." }, { "DOI": "10.3389/fpubh.2021.624559", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "key": "ref_9", "unstructured": "Teshome, A., Adane, A., Girma, B., and Mekonnen, Z.A. (2021). The impact of vitamin D level on COVID-19 infection: Systematic review and meta-analysis. Front. Public Health, 9." }, { "DOI": "10.3390/nu14102134", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "key": "ref_10", "unstructured": "Hosseini, B., El Abd, A., and Ducharme, F.M. (2022). Effects of vitamin D supplementation on COVID-19 related outcomes: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Nutrients, 14." }, { "DOI": "10.1017/S1368980024000934", "article-title": "The role of vitamin D in outcomes of critical care in COVID-19 patients: Evidence from an umbrella meta-analysis of interventional and observational studies", "author": "Jamilian", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "e127", "journal-title": "Public Health Nutr.", "key": "ref_11", "volume": "27", "year": "2024" }, { "DOI": "10.3390/nu16050679", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "key": "ref_12", "unstructured": "Sartini, M., Del Puente, F., Oliva, M., Carbone, A., Bobbio, N., Schinca, E., Giribone, L., and Cristina, M.L. (2024). Preventive vitamin D supplementation and risk for COVID-19 infection: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Nutrients, 16." }, { "DOI": "10.3390/ijms23073621", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "key": "ref_13", "unstructured": "Albergamo, A., Apprato, G., and Silvagno, F. (2022). The role of vitamin D in supporting health in the COVID-19 Era. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 23." }, { "key": "ref_14", "unstructured": "Laporte, J.R. (2024). Crònica d’una Societat Intoxicada, Ediciones Península. [3rd ed.]." }, { "DOI": "10.3390/nu16091345", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "key": "ref_15", "unstructured": "Sinopoli, A., Sciurti, A., Isonne, C., Santoro, M.M., and Baccolini, V. (2024). The efficacy of multivitamin, vitamin A, vitamin B, vitamin C, and vitamin D supplements in the prevention and management of COVID-19 and Long-COVID: An updated systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials. Nutrients, 16." }, { "DOI": "10.1210/clinem/dgac719", "article-title": "Consensus and controversial aspects of vitamin D and COVID-19", "author": "Bilezikian", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "1034", "journal-title": "J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.", "key": "ref_16", "volume": "108", "year": "2023" }, { "DOI": "10.1210/clinem/dgab708", "article-title": "Circulating conjugated and unconjugated vitamin D metabolite measurements by liquid chromatography mass spectrometry", "author": "Jenkinson", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "435", "journal-title": "J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.", "key": "ref_17", "volume": "107", "year": "2022" }, { "DOI": "10.1016/j.meegid.2021.105098", "article-title": "Association of vitamin D receptor gene polymorphisms and clinical/severe outcomes of COVID-19 patients", "author": "Abdollahzadeh", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "105098", "journal-title": "Infect. Genet. Evol.", "key": "ref_18", "volume": "96", "year": "2021" }, { "DOI": "10.1186/s12920-024-02018-y", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "key": "ref_19", "unstructured": "Hamed, E.R., Abdelhady, S.A., Al-Touny, S.A., Kishk, R.M., Mohamed, M.H., Rageh, F., Othman, A.A.A., Abdelfatah, W., and Azab, H. (2024). Correlation between rs7041 and rs4588 polymorphisms in vitamin D binding protein gene and COVID-19-related severity and mortality. BMC Med. Genom., 17." }, { "DOI": "10.1016/j.jsps.2024.102137", "article-title": "Evaluation of the vitamin D response index in a Saudi cohort", "author": "AlGhamdi", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "102137", "journal-title": "Saudi Pharm. J.", "key": "ref_20", "volume": "32", "year": "2024" }, { "DOI": "10.1016/j.metabol.2020.154434", "article-title": "Letter to the Editor: Vitamin D deficiency in COVID-19: Mixing up cause and consequence", "author": "Smolders", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "154434", "journal-title": "Metabolism", "key": "ref_21", "volume": "115", "year": "2021" }, { "DOI": "10.1016/S0140-6736(22)02465-5", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "key": "ref_22", "unstructured": "COVID-19 Forecasting Team (2023). Past SARS-CoV-2 infection protection against re-infection: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet, 401, 833–842." }, { "DOI": "10.3390/ijerph20043335", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "key": "ref_23", "unstructured": "Deng, J., Ma, Y., Liu, Q., Du, M., Liu, M., and Liu, J. (2023). Severity and outcomes of SARS-CoV-2 reinfection compared with primary infection: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 20." }, { "DOI": "10.3389/fpubh.2024.1353415", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "key": "ref_24", "unstructured": "Hu, W.H., Cai, H.L., Yan, H.C., Wang, H., Sun, H.M., Wei, Y.Y., and Hao, Y.T. (2024). Protective effectiveness of previous infection against subsequent SARS-Cov-2 infection: Systematic review and meta-analysis. Front. Public Health, 12." }, { "DOI": "10.1186/s12889-024-17695-8", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "key": "ref_25", "unstructured": "Bøås, H., Storm, M.L., Tapia, G., Kristoffersen, A.B., Løvlie, A.L., Størdal, K., Lyngstad, T.M., Bragstad, K., Hungnes, O., and Veneti, L. (2024). Frequency and risk of SARS-CoV-2 reinfections in Norway: A nation-wide study, February 2020 to January 2022. BMC Public Health, 24." }, { "DOI": "10.3390/arm91060041", "article-title": "Risk factors contributing to reinfection by SARS-CoV-2: A systematic review", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "560", "journal-title": "Adv. Respir. Med.", "key": "ref_26", "volume": "91", "year": "2023" }, { "DOI": "10.7189/jogh.13.06051", "article-title": "Incidence and outcome of SARS-CoV-2 reinfection in the pre-Omicron era: A global systematic review and meta-analysis", "author": "Ismail", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "06051", "journal-title": "J. Glob. Health", "key": "ref_27", "volume": "13", "year": "2023" }, { "DOI": "10.1371/journal.pone.0256747", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "key": "ref_28", "unstructured": "Domènech-Montoliu, S., Pac-Sa, M.R., Vidal-Utrillas, P., Latorre-Poveda, M., Del Rio-González, A., Ferrando-Rubert, S., Ferrer-Abad, G., Sánchez-Urbano, M., Aparisi-Esteve, L., and Badenes-Marques, G. (2021). Mass gathering events and COVID-19 transmission in Borriana (Spain): A retrospective cohort study. PLoS ONE, 16." }, { "DOI": "10.3390/covid1010006", "article-title": "Persistence of anti-SARS-CoV-2 antibodies six months after infection in an outbreak with five hundred COVID-19 cases in Borriana (Spain): A prospective cohort study", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "71", "journal-title": "COVID", "key": "ref_29", "volume": "1", "year": "2021" }, { "DOI": "10.3390/epidemiologia4010007", "article-title": "ABO blood groups and incidence of COVID-19 in the mass gathering events in borriana (Spain), March 2020: A retrospective cohort study", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "63", "journal-title": "Epidemiologia", "key": "ref_30", "volume": "4", "year": "2023" }, { "DOI": "10.3390/epidemiologia5020012", "article-title": "Cellular immunity of SARS-CoV-2 in the Borriana COVID-19 Cohort: A nested case-control study", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "167", "journal-title": "Epidemiologia", "key": "ref_31", "volume": "5", "year": "2024" }, { "DOI": "10.1373/jalm.2018.028415", "article-title": "Evaluation of a new generation automated assay for 25-Hydroxy vitamin D based on competitive protein binding", "author": "Asif", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "247", "journal-title": "J. Appl. Lab. Med.", "key": "ref_32", "volume": "4", "year": "2019" }, { "DOI": "10.1210/jc.2011-0385", "article-title": "Evaluation, treatment, and prevention of vitamin D deficiency: An Endocrine Society clinical practice guideline", "author": "Holick", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "1911", "journal-title": "J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.", "key": "ref_33", "volume": "96", "year": "2011" }, { "key": "ref_34", "unstructured": "European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (2024, June 26). Reinfection with SARS-CoV-2: Implementation of a Surveillance Case Definition Within the EU/EEA. Available online: https://www.ecdc.europa.eu/en/publications-data/reinfection-sars-cov-2-implementation-surveillance-case-definition-within-eueea." }, { "DOI": "10.1128/JCM.00388-21", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "key": "ref_35", "unstructured": "Narasimhan, M., Mahimainathan, L., Araj, E., Clark, A.E., Markantonis, J., Green, A., Xu, J., SoRelle, J.A., Alexis, C., and Fankhauser, K. (2021). Clinical evaluation of the Abbott Alinity SARS-CoV-2 sike-specific quantitative IgG and IgM assays among infected, recovered, and vaccinated groups. J. Clin. Microbiol., 59." }, { "DOI": "10.1016/j.cca.2020.05.049", "article-title": "Comparison of the Elecsys® Anti-SARS-CoV-2 immunoassay with the EDI™ enzyme linked immunosorbent assays for the detection of SARS-CoV-2 antibodies in human plasma", "author": "Egger", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "18", "journal-title": "Clin. Chim. Acta", "key": "ref_36", "volume": "509", "year": "2020" }, { "article-title": "Robust causal inference using directed acyclic graphs: The R package ‘dagitty’", "author": "Textor", "first-page": "1887", "journal-title": "Int. J. Epidemiol.", "key": "ref_37", "volume": "45", "year": "2016" }, { "DOI": "10.1097/00001648-200009000-00011", "article-title": "Marginal structural models and causal inference in epidemiology", "author": "Robins", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "550", "journal-title": "Epidemiology", "key": "ref_38", "volume": "11", "year": "2000" }, { "DOI": "10.1017/S0007114521005080", "article-title": "Influence of geographical latitude on vitamin D status: Cross-sectional results from the BiomarCaRE consortium", "author": "Oskarsson", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "2208", "journal-title": "Br. J. Nutr.", "key": "ref_39", "volume": "128", "year": "2022" }, { "article-title": "Influencing variables on total and free 25(OH)D levels in healthy population", "first-page": "313", "journal-title": "Rev. Clínica Española", "key": "ref_40", "volume": "222", "year": "2022" }, { "DOI": "10.3389/fnut.2023.1070808", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "key": "ref_41", "unstructured": "Cui, A., Zhang, T., Xiao, P., Fan, Z., Wang, H., and Zhuang, Y. (2023). Global and regional prevalence of vitamin D deficiency in population-based studies from 2000 to 2022: A pooled analysis of 7.9 million participants. Front. Nutr., 10." }, { "DOI": "10.1371/journal.pone.0262164", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "key": "ref_42", "unstructured": "Rivelli, A., Fitzpatrick, V., Blair, C., Copeland, K., and Richards, J. (2022). Incidence of COVID-19 reinfection among Midwestern healthcare employees. PLoS ONE, 17." }, { "DOI": "10.1002/jmv.28997", "article-title": "Incidence and severity of SARS-CoV-2 reinfection, a multicenter cohort study in Shanghai, China", "author": "Yu", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "e28997", "journal-title": "J. Med. Virol.", "key": "ref_43", "volume": "95", "year": "2023" }, { "DOI": "10.1186/s12879-024-09872-2", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "key": "ref_44", "unstructured": "Mokhayeri, Y., Taherpour, N., Shahbazi, F., Ghorbani, S.S., Fallah, S., Etemad, K., Izadi, N., Mehri, A., Farhadi-Babadi, K., and Rahimi, E. (2024). Estimation of outpatient SARS-CoV-2 reinfection and recurrence rates and associated factors among COVID-19 hospitalized patients over one-year old: A multicenter retrospective cohort study. BMC Infect. Dis., 24." }, { "article-title": "Risk and severity of SARS-CoV-2 reinfections during 2020–2022 in Vojvodina, Serbia: A population-level observational study", "author": "Anastassopoulou", "first-page": "100453", "journal-title": "Lancet Reg. Health–Eur.", "key": "ref_45", "volume": "20", "year": "2022" }, { "DOI": "10.3389/fpubh.2024.1457266", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "key": "ref_46", "unstructured": "Zheng, H., Wu, S., Chen, W., Cai, S., Zhan, M., Chen, C., Lin, J., Xie, Z., Ou, J., and Ye, W. (2024). Meta-analysis of hybrid immunity to mitigate the risk of Omicron variant reinfection. Front. Public Health, 12." }, { "DOI": "10.1038/s41467-024-44973-1", "article-title": "Risk of SARS-CoV-2 reinfection during multiple Omicron variant waves in the UK general population", "author": "Wei", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "1008", "journal-title": "Nat. Commun.", "key": "ref_47", "volume": "15", "year": "2024" }, { "key": "ref_48", "unstructured": "Hodcroft, E., and CoVariants (2025, January 01). Overview of Variants in Countries. Covariants.org., Available online: https://covariants.org/per-country?country=Spain." }, { "DOI": "10.1017/S1368980024001873", "article-title": "Associations between pre-infection serum vitamin D concentrations and Omicron COVID-19 incidence, severity and reoccurrence in elderly individuals", "author": "Chen", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "e197", "journal-title": "Public Health Nutr.", "key": "ref_49", "volume": "27", "year": "2024" }, { "DOI": "10.3390/vaccines11020475", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "key": "ref_50", "unstructured": "Abu Fanne, R., Moed, M., Kedem, A., Lidawi, G., Maraga, E., Mohsen, F., Roguin, A., and Meisel, S.R. (2023). SARS-CoV-2 infection-blocking immunity post natural infection: The role of vitamin D. Vaccines, 11." }, { "DOI": "10.1007/s40618-021-01639-9", "article-title": "Vitamin D supplementation and COVID-19 risk: A population-based, cohort study", "author": "Oristrell", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "167", "journal-title": "J. Endocrinol. Investig.", "key": "ref_51", "volume": "45", "year": "2022" }, { "DOI": "10.3390/nu15071581", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "key": "ref_52", "unstructured": "Basińska-Lewandowska, M., Lewandowski, K., Horzelski, W., Lewiński, A., and Skowrońska-Jóźwiak, E. (2023). Frequency of COVID-19 infection as a function of vitamin D levels. Nutrients, 15." }, { "DOI": "10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2020.19722", "article-title": "Association of vitamin D status and other clinical characteristics with COVID-19 test results", "author": "Meltzer", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "e2019722", "journal-title": "JAMA Netw. Open", "key": "ref_53", "volume": "3", "year": "2020" }, { "DOI": "10.1111/febs.15495", "article-title": "Low plasma 25(OH) vitamin D level is associated with increased risk of COVID-19 infection: An Israeli population-based study", "author": "Merzon", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "3693", "journal-title": "FEBS J.", "key": "ref_54", "volume": "287", "year": "2020" }, { "DOI": "10.1007/s11739-021-02902-w", "article-title": "Vitamin D deficiency is associated with higher risks for SARS-CoV-2 infection and COVID-19 severity: A retrospective case-control study", "author": "Israel", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "1053", "journal-title": "Intern. Emerg. Med.", "key": "ref_55", "volume": "17", "year": "2022" }, { "DOI": "10.1371/journal.pone.0239252", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "key": "ref_56", "unstructured": "Kaufman, H.W., Niles, J.K., Kroll, M.H., Bi, C., and Holick, M.F. (2020). SARS-CoV-2 positivity rates associated with circulating 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels. PLoS ONE, 15." }, { "DOI": "10.1038/s41390-022-02275-6", "article-title": "Vitamin D deficiency and vitamin D receptor FokI polymorphism as risk factors for COVID-19", "author": "Zeidan", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "1383", "journal-title": "Pediatr. Res.", "key": "ref_57", "volume": "93", "year": "2023" }, { "DOI": "10.1007/s11606-021-07170-0", "article-title": "Association of vitamin D status and COVID-19-related hospitalization and mortality", "author": "Seal", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "853", "journal-title": "J. Gen. Intern. Med.", "key": "ref_58", "volume": "37", "year": "2022" }, { "DOI": "10.1371/journal.pone.0263069", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "key": "ref_59", "unstructured": "Dror, A.A., Morozov, N., Daoud, A., Namir, Y., Yakir, O., Shachar, Y., Lifshitz, M., Segal, E., Fisher, L., and Mizrachi, M. (2022). Pre-infection 25-hydroxyvitamin D3 levels and association with severity of COVID-19 illness. PLoS ONE, 17." }, { "DOI": "10.3390/nu12123799", "article-title": "High-dose cholecalciferol booster therapy is associated with a reduced risk of mortality in patients with COVID-19: A cross-sectional multi-centre observational study", "author": "Ling", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "3799", "journal-title": "Nutrients", "key": "ref_60", "volume": "12", "year": "2020" }, { "DOI": "10.1093/pubmed/fdae007", "article-title": "Therapeutic high-dose vitamin D for vitamin D-deficient severe COVID-19 disease: Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study (SHADE-S)", "author": "Singh", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "256", "journal-title": "J. Public Health", "key": "ref_61", "volume": "46", "year": "2024" }, { "DOI": "10.1093/ajcn/nqab389", "article-title": "Associations between predicted vitamin D status, vitamin D intake, and risk of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection and coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) severity", "author": "Ma", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "1123", "journal-title": "Am. J. Clin. Nutr.", "key": "ref_62", "volume": "115", "year": "2022" }, { "DOI": "10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2021.11634", "article-title": "Assessment of the association of vitamin D level with SARS-CoV-2 seropositivity among working-age adults", "author": "Li", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "e2111634", "journal-title": "JAMA Netw. Open", "key": "ref_63", "volume": "4", "year": "2021" }, { "DOI": "10.1016/j.tjnut.2023.03.001", "article-title": "Vitamin D and SARS-CoV-2 infection: SERVE Study (SARS-CoV-2 exposure and the role of vitamin D among hospital employees)", "author": "Liu", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "1420", "journal-title": "J. Nutr.", "key": "ref_64", "volume": "153", "year": "2023" }, { "DOI": "10.1024/0300-9831/a000687", "article-title": "No significant association between vitamin D and COVID-19: A retrospective study from a northern Italian hospital", "author": "Ferrari", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "200", "journal-title": "Int. J. Vitam. Nutr. Res.", "key": "ref_65", "volume": "91", "year": "2021" }, { "article-title": "Examination of the moderating effect of race on the relationship between vitamin D status and COVID-19 test positivity using propensity score methods", "author": "Crandell", "first-page": "646", "journal-title": "J. Am. Nutr. Assoc.", "key": "ref_66", "volume": "41", "year": "2022" }, { "DOI": "10.3390/nu15183979", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "key": "ref_67", "unstructured": "Ganmaa, D., Chinbayar, T., Khudaykov, P., Nasantogtoh, E., Ariunbuyan, S., Enkhtsetseg, T., Sarangua, G., Chan, A., and Tserendagva, D. (2023). Latent TB infection, vitamin D status and COVID-19 severity in Mongolian patients. Nutrients, 15." }, { "article-title": "Insufficient evidence for vitamin D use in COVID-19: A rapid systematic review", "author": "Atallah", "first-page": "e14649", "journal-title": "Int. J. Clin. Pract.", "key": "ref_68", "volume": "75", "year": "2021" }, { "DOI": "10.1371/journal.pmed.1003605", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "key": "ref_69", "unstructured": "Butler-Laporte, G., Nakanishi, T., Mooser, V., Morrison, D.R., Abdullah, T., Adeleye, O., Mamlouk, N., Kimchi, N., Afrasiabi, Z., and Rezk, N. (2021). Vitamin D and COVID-19 susceptibility and severity in the COVID-19 host genetics initiative: A Mendelian randomization study. PLoS Med., 18." }, { "DOI": "10.1016/j.arcmed.2022.04.003", "article-title": "Efficacy and safety of vitamin D supplementation to prevent COVID-19 in frontline healthcare workers. A randomized clinical trial", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "423", "journal-title": "Arch. Med. Res.", "key": "ref_70", "volume": "53", "year": "2022" }, { "DOI": "10.1136/bmj-2022-071230", "article-title": "Effect of a test-and-treat approach to vitamin D supplementation on risk of all cause acute respiratory tract infection and covid-19: Phase 3 randomised controlled trial (CORONAVIT)", "author": "Jolliffe", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "e071230", "journal-title": "BMJ", "key": "ref_71", "volume": "378", "year": "2022" }, { "DOI": "10.1136/bmj-2022-071245", "article-title": "Prevention of covid-19 and other acute respiratory infections with cod liver oil supplementation, a low dose vitamin D supplement: Quadruple blinded, randomised placebo controlled trial", "author": "Brunvoll", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "e071245", "journal-title": "BMJ", "key": "ref_72", "volume": "378", "year": "2022" }, { "DOI": "10.3390/nu14030505", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "key": "ref_73", "unstructured": "Karonova, T.L., Chernikova, A.T., Golovatyuk, K.A., Bykova, E.S., Grant, W.B., Kalinina, O.V., Grineva, E.N., and Shlyakhto, E.V. (2022). Vitamin D intake may reduce SARS-CoV-2 infection morbidity in health care workers. Nutrients, 14." }, { "DOI": "10.1016/j.jsbmb.2017.08.009", "article-title": "Why vitamin D clinical trials should be based on 25-hydroxyvitamin D concentrations", "author": "Grant", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "266", "journal-title": "J. Steroid Biochem. Mol. Biol.", "key": "ref_74", "volume": "177", "year": "2018" }, { "DOI": "10.3390/nu14020303", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "key": "ref_75", "unstructured": "Pilz, S., Trummer, C., Theiler-Schwetz, V., Grübler, M.R., Verheyen, N.D., Odler, B., Karras, S.N., Zittermann, A., and März, W. (2022). Critical appraisal of large vitamin D randomized controlled trials. Nutrients, 14." }, { "DOI": "10.3390/nu16101402", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "key": "ref_76", "unstructured": "Sobczak, M., and Pawliczak, R. (2024). Effect of Vitamin D3 supplementation on severe COVID-19: A meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials. Nutrients, 16." }, { "DOI": "10.1111/joim.13536", "article-title": "Vitamin D and COVID-19 revisited", "author": "Subramanian", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "604", "journal-title": "J. Intern. Med.", "key": "ref_77", "volume": "292", "year": "2022" }, { "DOI": "10.1017/S0029665122002798", "article-title": "Vitamin D in the prevention or treatment of COVID-19", "author": "Martineau", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "200", "journal-title": "Proc. Nutr. Soc.", "key": "ref_78", "volume": "82", "year": "2023" }, { "DOI": "10.1371/journal.pone.0303316", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "key": "ref_79", "unstructured": "Autier, P., Doi, G., Mullie, P., Vankrunkelsven, P., D’Ecclesiis, O., and Gandini, S. (2025). Vitamin D, acute respiratory infections, and Covid-19: The curse of small-size randomised trials. A critical review with meta-analysis of randomised trials. PLoS ONE, 20." }, { "article-title": "Vitamin D and immune regulation: Antibacterial, antiviral, anti-Inflammatory", "author": "Bishop", "first-page": "e10405", "journal-title": "J. Bone Miner. Res. Plus", "key": "ref_80", "volume": "5", "year": "2020" }, { "DOI": "10.3390/biom11111624", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "key": "ref_81", "unstructured": "Ao, T., Kikuta, J., and Ishii, M. (2021). The effects of vitamin D on immune system and inflammatory diseases. Biomolecules, 11." }, { "DOI": "10.1007/s11154-021-09679-5", "article-title": "Vitamin D, infections and immunity", "author": "Ismailova", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "265", "journal-title": "Rev. Endocr. Metab. Disord.", "key": "ref_82", "volume": "23", "year": "2022" }, { "DOI": "10.3390/ijms22105251", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "key": "ref_83", "unstructured": "Peng, M.Y., Liu, W.C., Zheng, J.Q., Lu, C.L., Hou, Y.C., Zheng, C.M., Song, J.Y., Lu, K.C., and Chao, Y.C. (2021). Immunological aspects of SARS-CoV-2 infection and the putative beneficial role of vitamin-D. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 22." }, { "DOI": "10.3390/nu15030593", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "key": "ref_84", "unstructured": "Holick, M.F. (2023). The one-hundred-year anniversary of the discovery of the sunshine vitamin D3: Historical, personal experience and evidence-based perspectives. Nutrients, 15." }, { "DOI": "10.1101/2022.06.29.498158", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "key": "ref_85", "unstructured": "Arora, J., Patel, D.R., Nicol, M.J., Field, C.J., Restori, K.H., Wang, J., Froelich, N.E., Katkere, B., Terwilliger, J.A., and Weaver, V. (2022). Vitamin D and the ability to produce 1,25(OH)2D are critical for protection from viral infection of the lungs. Nutrients, 14." }, { "DOI": "10.3390/v15122434", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "key": "ref_86", "unstructured": "Campolina-Silva, G., Andrade, A.C.D.S.P., Couto, M., Bittencourt-Silva, P.G., Queiroz-Junior, C.M., Lacerda, L.S.B., Chaves, I.M., de Oliveira, L.C., Marim, F.M., and Oliveira, C.A. (2023). Dietary vitamin D mitigates coronavirus-induced lung inflammation and damage in mice. Viruses, 15." }, { "DOI": "10.1111/iji.12585", "article-title": "VDR gene polymorphisms are associated with the increased susceptibility to COVID-19 among iranian population: A case-control study", "author": "Jafarpoor", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "243", "journal-title": "Int. J. Immunogenet.", "key": "ref_87", "volume": "49", "year": "2022" }, { "DOI": "10.3390/epidemiologia3010006", "article-title": "Complications post-COVID-19 and risk factors among patients after six months of a SARS-CoV-2 infection: A population-based prospective cohort study", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "49", "journal-title": "Epidemiologia", "key": "ref_88", "volume": "3", "year": "2022" }, { "DOI": "10.3390/vaccines11101590", "article-title": "Long COVID prevalence and the impact of the third SARS-CoV-2 vaccine dose: A cross-sectional analysis from the third follow-up of the Borriana Cohort, Valencia, Spain (2020–2022)", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "1590", "journal-title": "Vaccines", "key": "ref_89", "volume": "11", "year": "2023" }, { "DOI": "10.1038/s41430-019-0553-3", "article-title": "Vitamin D testing: Advantages and limits of the current assays", "author": "Altieri", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "231", "journal-title": "Eur. J. Clin. Nutr.", "key": "ref_90", "volume": "74", "year": "2020" }, { "DOI": "10.1016/j.nurpra.2022.10.010", "article-title": "Vitamin D measurement: Clinical practice and research implications", "author": "Binick", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "104481", "journal-title": "J. Nurse Pract.", "key": "ref_91", "volume": "19", "year": "2023" }, { "DOI": "10.1093/jalm/jfaa070", "article-title": "Improved recognition of 25-hydroxyvitamin D2 by 2 automated immunoassays", "author": "Geno", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "1287", "journal-title": "J. Appl. Lab. Med.", "key": "ref_92", "volume": "5", "year": "2020" }, { "key": "ref_93", "unstructured": "Monson, R. (1982). Occupational Epidemiology, CRC Press." }, { "article-title": "Magnesium and vitamin D deficiency as a potential cause of immune dysfunction, cytokine storm and disseminated intravascular coagulation in Covid-19 patients", "author": "DiNicolantonio", "first-page": "68", "journal-title": "Mo. Med.", "key": "ref_94", "volume": "118", "year": "2021" }, { "DOI": "10.3390/biology12050735", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "key": "ref_95", "unstructured": "Guerrero-Romero, F., Micke, O., Simental-Mendía, L.E., Rodríguez-Morán, M., Vormann, J., Iotti, S., Banjanin, N., Rosanoff, A., Baniasadi, S., and Pourdowlat, G. (2023). Importance of magnesium status in COVID-19. Biology, 12." }, { "DOI": "10.1097/IPC.0000000000001051", "article-title": "Comparing serum levels of vitamin D and Zinc in novel coronavirus-infected patients and healthy individuals in Northeastern Iran, 2020", "author": "Hosseini", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "e390", "journal-title": "Infect. Dis. Clin. Pract.", "key": "ref_96", "volume": "29", "year": "2021" }, { "DOI": "10.1007/s12011-024-04139-y", "article-title": "Immunomodulatory effects of vitamin D and zinc on viral infection", "author": "Rizwan", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "1", "journal-title": "Biol. Trace Elem. Res.", "key": "ref_97", "volume": "203", "year": "2025" } ], "reference-count": 97, "references-count": 97, "relation": {}, "resource": { "primary": { "URL": "https://www.mdpi.com/2414-6366/10/4/98" } }, "score": 1, "short-title": [], "source": "Crossref", "subject": [], "subtitle": [], "title": "Vitamin D Status and Incidence of SARS-CoV-2 Reinfections in the Borriana COVID-19 Cohort: A Population-Based Prospective Cohort Study", "type": "journal-article", "volume": "10" }