Frequency of COVID-19 Infection as a Function of Vitamin D Levels

{ 'indexed': {'date-parts': [[2023, 3, 25]], 'date-time': '2023-03-25T04:46:42Z', 'timestamp': 1679719602776}, 'reference-count': 27, 'publisher': 'MDPI AG', 'issue': '7', 'license': [ { 'start': { 'date-parts': [[2023, 3, 24]], 'date-time': '2023-03-24T00:00:00Z', 'timestamp': 1679616000000}, 'content-version': 'vor', 'delay-in-days': 0, 'URL': 'https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/'}], 'funder': [{'name': 'Medical University of Lodz', 'award': ['503/1-107-03/503-11-001-19-00']}], 'content-domain': {'domain': [], 'crossmark-restriction': False}, 'abstract': '<jats:p>Background: It has been speculated that higher concentrations of 25-hydroxy-vitamin D ' '(25OHD) provide some protection against COVID-19. We assessed whether there is any ' 'relationship between 25OHD concentrations and the subsequent development of COVID-19 ' 'infection. Materials and Methods: Concentrations of 25OHD were measured in March–April 2020 ' 'in 134 healthy subjects (57 males), age range 6–50, from a single urban general practice in ' 'central Poland. Data on COVID-19 infection during the subsequent 12 months (prior to the ' 'vaccination program) were obtained from the national database of COVID-19 cases. None of the ' 'subjects received any 25OHD supplements. Results: The average 25OHD concentrations were 18.1 ' '± 7.39 ng/mL (37.3% had 25OHD above 20 ng/mL). Thirty-one (23.1%) patients developed COVID-19 ' 'infection, but an increased risk was only observed in individuals with 25OHD concentrations ' 'below 12 ng/mL (COVID-19 infection in 11 out of 25 patients (44%) with 25OHD &lt; 12 ng/mL ' 'versus 20 out of 109 (18.3%) for those with 25OHD above 12 ng/mL, p = 0.0063). Such a ' 'relationship was no longer observed for subjects with 25OHD concentrations above 20 ng/mL (p ' '= 0.2787). Conclusions: Although only a minority of healthy subjects had 25OHD concentrations ' 'above 20 ng/mL in spring, an increased risk of subsequent COVID-19 infection was only ' 'observed in those with severe 25OHD deficiency (&lt;12 ng/mL).</jats:p>', 'DOI': '10.3390/nu15071581', 'type': 'journal-article', 'created': {'date-parts': [[2023, 3, 24]], 'date-time': '2023-03-24T12:43:03Z', 'timestamp': 1679661783000}, 'page': '1581', 'source': 'Crossref', 'is-referenced-by-count': 0, 'title': 'Frequency of COVID-19 Infection as a Function of Vitamin D Levels', 'prefix': '10.3390', 'volume': '15', 'author': [ { 'given': 'Magdalena', 'family': 'Basińska-Lewandowska', 'sequence': 'first', 'affiliation': [ { 'name': '“Your Family Doctor”, General Practice Surgery, 93-324 Lodz, ' 'Poland'}]}, { 'ORCID': 'http://orcid.org/0000-0002-9113-2804', 'authenticated-orcid': False, 'given': 'Krzysztof', 'family': 'Lewandowski', 'sequence': 'additional', 'affiliation': [ { 'name': 'Department of Endocrinology and Metabolic Diseases, Medical ' 'University of Lodz, 90-419 Lodz, Poland'}, { 'name': 'Department of Endocrinology and Metabolic Diseases, Polish ' 'Mother’s Memorial Hospital—Research Institute, 93-338 Lodz, ' 'Poland'}]}, { 'ORCID': 'http://orcid.org/0000-0002-3690-5368', 'authenticated-orcid': False, 'given': 'Wojciech', 'family': 'Horzelski', 'sequence': 'additional', 'affiliation': [ { 'name': 'Department of Mathematics and Computer Science, University of ' 'Lodz, 90-238 Lodz, Poland'}]}, { 'ORCID': 'http://orcid.org/0000-0002-8748-3337', 'authenticated-orcid': False, 'given': 'Andrzej', 'family': 'Lewiński', 'sequence': 'additional', 'affiliation': [ { 'name': 'Department of Endocrinology and Metabolic Diseases, Medical ' 'University of Lodz, 90-419 Lodz, Poland'}, { 'name': 'Department of Endocrinology and Metabolic Diseases, Polish ' 'Mother’s Memorial Hospital—Research Institute, 93-338 Lodz, ' 'Poland'}]}, { 'ORCID': 'http://orcid.org/0000-0002-0019-4269', 'authenticated-orcid': False, 'given': 'Elżbieta', 'family': 'Skowrońska-Jóźwiak', 'sequence': 'additional', 'affiliation': [ { 'name': 'Department of Endocrinology and Metabolic Diseases, Medical ' 'University of Lodz, 90-419 Lodz, Poland'}, { 'name': 'Department of Endocrinology and Metabolic Diseases, Polish ' 'Mother’s Memorial Hospital—Research Institute, 93-338 Lodz, ' 'Poland'}]}], 'member': '1968', 'published-online': {'date-parts': [[2023, 3, 24]]}, 'reference': [ { 'key': 'ref_1', 'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref', 'unstructured': 'Sassi, F., Tamone, C., and D’Amelio, P. (2018). Vitamin D: Nutrient, ' 'Hormone, and Immunomodulator. Nutrients, 10.', 'DOI': '10.3390/nu10111656'}, { 'key': 'ref_2', 'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref', 'unstructured': 'Mercola, J., Grant, W.B., and Wagner, C.L. (2020). Evidence Regarding ' 'Vitamin D and Risk of COVID-19 and Its Severity. Nutrients, 12.', 'DOI': '10.3390/nu12113361'}, { 'key': 'ref_3', 'first-page': '69', 'article-title': 'Niedobór witaminy D a ciężki przebieg COVID-19 czy istnieje związek? ' '[Vitamin D deficiency and severe course of COVID-19—Is there a ' 'connection?]', 'volume': '7–8', 'author': 'Zygmunt', 'year': '2020', 'journal-title': 'Med. Prakt.'}, { 'key': 'ref_4', 'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref', 'first-page': '167', 'DOI': '10.1007/s40618-021-01639-9', 'article-title': 'Vitamin D supplementation and COVID-19 risk: A population-based, cohort ' 'study', 'volume': '45', 'author': 'Oristrell', 'year': '2022', 'journal-title': 'J. Endocrinol. Investig.'}, { 'key': 'ref_5', 'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref', 'unstructured': 'Grant, W.B., Lahore, H., McDonnell, S.L., Baggerly, C.A., French, C.B., ' 'Aliano, J.L., and Bhattoa, H.P. (2020). Evidence that Vitamin D ' 'Supplementation Could Reduce Risk of Influenza and COVID-19 Infections ' 'and Deaths. Nutrients, 12.', 'DOI': '10.20944/preprints202003.0235.v2'}, { 'key': 'ref_6', 'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref', 'unstructured': 'Borsche, L., Glauner, B., and von Mendel, J. (2021). COVID-19 Mortality ' 'Risk Correlates Inversely with Vitamin D3 Status, and a Mortality Rate ' 'Close to Zero Could Theoretically Be Achieved at 50 ng/mL 25(OH)D3: ' 'Results of a Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Nutrients, 13.', 'DOI': '10.1101/2021.09.22.21263977'}, { 'key': 'ref_7', 'first-page': 'CD015043', 'article-title': 'Supplementation for the treatment of COVID-19: A living systematic ' 'review', 'volume': '5', 'author': 'Stroehlein', 'year': '2021', 'journal-title': 'Cochrane Database Syst. Rev.'}, { 'key': 'ref_8', 'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref', 'unstructured': 'Hosseini, B., El Abd, A., and Ducharme, F.M. (2022). Effects of Vitamin ' 'D Supplementation on COVID-19 Related Outcomes: A Systematic Review and ' 'Meta-Analysis. Nutrients, 14.', 'DOI': '10.3390/nu14102134'}, { 'key': 'ref_9', 'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref', 'first-page': '299', 'DOI': '10.1056/NEJMoa2202106', 'article-title': 'Supplemental Vitamin D and Incident Fractures in Midlife and Older ' 'Adults', 'volume': '387', 'author': 'LeBoff', 'year': '2022', 'journal-title': 'N. Engl. J. Med.'}, { 'key': 'ref_10', 'first-page': '408', 'article-title': 'Coronavirus disease-19 pandemic and vitamin D: So much for so little?', 'volume': '73', 'year': '2021', 'journal-title': 'Rev. Investig. Clin.'}, { 'key': 'ref_11', 'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref', 'first-page': '329', 'DOI': '10.1001/jama.2020.24127', 'article-title': 'Sorting out whether vitamin D deficiency raises COVID-19 risk', 'volume': '325', 'author': 'Rubin', 'year': '2021', 'journal-title': 'JAMA'}, { 'key': 'ref_12', 'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref', 'first-page': '1146', 'DOI': '10.1210/jc.2011-2218', 'article-title': 'IOM committee members respond to Endocrine Society vitamin D guideline', 'volume': '97', 'author': 'Rosen', 'year': '2012', 'journal-title': 'J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.'}, { 'key': 'ref_13', 'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref', 'first-page': '1911', 'DOI': '10.1210/jc.2011-0385', 'article-title': 'Evaluation, treatment, and prevention of vitamin D deficiency: An ' 'Endocrine Society clinical practice guideline', 'volume': '96', 'author': 'Holick', 'year': '2011', 'journal-title': 'J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.'}, { 'key': 'ref_14', 'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref', 'unstructured': 'Płudowski, P., Kos-Kudła, B., Walczak, M., Fal, A., ' 'Zozulińska-Ziółkiewicz, D., Sieroszewski, P., Peregud-Pogorzelski, J., ' 'Lauterbach, R., Targowski, T., and Lewiński, A. (2023). Guidelines for ' 'Preventing and Treating Vitamin D Deficiency: A 2023 Update in Poland. ' 'Nutrients, 15.', 'DOI': '10.3390/nu15030695'}, { 'key': 'ref_15', 'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref', 'unstructured': 'Basińska-Lewandowska, M., Lewiński, A., Horzelski, W., and ' 'Skowrońska-Jóźwiak, E. (2021). Effect of Summer Sunshine Exposure on ' 'Vitamin D Status in Young and Middle Age Poles: Is 30 ng/mL Vitamin D ' 'Cut-Off Really Suitable for the Polish Population?. Int. J. Environ. ' 'Res. Public Health, 18.', 'DOI': '10.3390/ijerph18158116'}, { 'key': 'ref_16', 'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref', 'first-page': 'e071230', 'DOI': '10.1136/bmj-2022-071230', 'article-title': 'Effect of a test-and-treat approach to vitamin D supplementation on ' 'risk of all cause acute respiratory tract infection and covid-19: Phase ' '3 randomised controlled trial (CORONAVIT)', 'volume': '378', 'author': 'Jolliffe', 'year': '2022', 'journal-title': 'BMJ'}, { 'key': 'ref_17', 'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref', 'first-page': '281', 'DOI': '10.1111/cen.14540', 'article-title': 'Association of vitamin D deficiency with COVID-19 infection severity: ' 'Systematic review and meta-analysis', 'volume': '96', 'author': 'Wang', 'year': '2022', 'journal-title': 'Clin. Endocrinol.'}, { 'key': 'ref_18', 'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref', 'first-page': 'e1343', 'DOI': '10.1210/clinem/dgaa733', 'article-title': 'Vitamin D Status in Hospitalized Patients with SARS-CoV-2 Infection', 'volume': '106', 'author': 'Hernandez', 'year': '2021', 'journal-title': 'J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.'}, { 'key': 'ref_19', 'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref', 'first-page': '442', 'DOI': '10.1136/postgradmedj-2020-138712', 'article-title': 'Vitamin D status and outcomes for hospitalised older patients with ' 'COVID-19', 'volume': '97', 'author': 'Baktash', 'year': '2021', 'journal-title': 'Postgrad Med. J.'}, { 'key': 'ref_20', 'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref', 'unstructured': 'Sulli, A., Gotelli, E., Casabella, A., Paolino, S., Pizzorni, C., ' 'Alessandri, E., Grosso, M., Ferone, D., Smith, V., and Cutolo, M. ' '(2021). Vitamin D and Lung Outcomes in Elderly COVID-19 Patients. ' 'Nutrients, 13.', 'DOI': '10.3390/nu13030717'}, { 'key': 'ref_21', 'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref', 'first-page': 'e4017', 'DOI': '10.1210/clinem/dgab405', 'article-title': 'Calcifediol treatment and COVID-19-related outcomes', 'volume': '106', 'author': 'Nogues', 'year': '2021', 'journal-title': 'J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.'}, { 'key': 'ref_22', 'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref', 'first-page': '91', 'DOI': '10.1016/j.nutres.2014.12.008', 'article-title': 'Does serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D decrease during acute-phase response? A ' 'systematic review', 'volume': '35', 'author': 'Silva', 'year': '2015', 'journal-title': 'Nutr. Res.'}, { 'key': 'ref_23', 'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref', 'first-page': '1013', 'DOI': '10.1007/s00198-016-3819-9', 'article-title': 'Surgery alters parameters of vitamin D status and other laboratory ' 'results', 'volume': '28', 'author': 'Binkley', 'year': '2017', 'journal-title': 'Osteoporos Int.'}, { 'key': 'ref_24', 'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref', 'first-page': '124', 'DOI': '10.5603/DEMJ.a2022.0016', 'article-title': 'Association between low serum vitamin D and increased mortality and ' 'severity due to COVID-19: Reverse causality?', 'volume': '7', 'author': 'Oscanoa', 'year': '2022', 'journal-title': 'Disaster Emerg. Med. J.'}, { 'key': 'ref_25', 'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref', 'first-page': '459', 'DOI': '10.23736/S2724-5985.21.02955-7', 'article-title': 'The enigma of vitamin D supplementation in aging with obesity', 'volume': '68', 'author': 'Perna', 'year': '2022', 'journal-title': 'Minerva. Gastroenterol.'}, { 'key': 'ref_26', 'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref', 'unstructured': 'Perna, S. (2019). Is vitamin D supplementation useful for weight-loss ' 'programs? A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled ' 'trials. Medicina, 55.', 'DOI': '10.3390/medicina55070368'}, { 'key': 'ref_27', 'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref', 'first-page': '368', 'DOI': '10.1056/NEJMe2205993', 'article-title': 'VITAL Findings—A Decisive Verdict on Vitamin D Supplementation', 'volume': '387', 'author': 'Cummings', 'year': '2022', 'journal-title': 'N. Engl. J. Med.'}], 'container-title': 'Nutrients', 'original-title': [], 'language': 'en', 'link': [ { 'URL': 'https://www.mdpi.com/2072-6643/15/7/1581/pdf', 'content-type': 'unspecified', 'content-version': 'vor', 'intended-application': 'similarity-checking'}], 'deposited': { 'date-parts': [[2023, 3, 24]], 'date-time': '2023-03-24T13:46:22Z', 'timestamp': 1679665582000}, 'score': 1, 'resource': {'primary': {'URL': 'https://www.mdpi.com/2072-6643/15/7/1581'}}, 'subtitle': [], 'short-title': [], 'issued': {'date-parts': [[2023, 3, 24]]}, 'references-count': 27, 'journal-issue': {'issue': '7', 'published-online': {'date-parts': [[2023, 4]]}}, 'alternative-id': ['nu15071581'], 'URL': 'http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/nu15071581', 'relation': {}, 'ISSN': ['2072-6643'], 'subject': ['Food Science', 'Nutrition and Dietetics'], 'container-title-short': 'Nutrients', 'published': {'date-parts': [[2023, 3, 24]]}}