Dietary glycemic index, glycemic load, and risk of COVID-19: a prospective cohort study

DOI record: { "DOI": "10.1186/s41043-025-00958-4", "ISSN": [ "2072-1315" ], "URL": "http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s41043-025-00958-4", "alternative-id": [ "958" ], "article-number": "203", "assertion": [ { "group": { "label": "Article History", "name": "ArticleHistory" }, "label": "Received", "name": "received", "order": 1, "value": "21 January 2025" }, { "group": { "label": "Article History", "name": "ArticleHistory" }, "label": "Accepted", "name": "accepted", "order": 2, "value": "28 May 2025" }, { "group": { "label": "Article History", "name": "ArticleHistory" }, "label": "First Online", "name": "first_online", "order": 3, "value": "17 June 2025" }, { "group": { "label": "Declarations", "name": "EthicsHeading" }, "name": "Ethics", "order": 1 }, { "group": { "label": "Ethics approval and consent of participate", "name": "EthicsHeading" }, "name": "Ethics", "order": 2, "value": "This prospective cohort study was performed on data from Shiraz University of Medical Sciences employees’ health cohort study (SUMS EHCS). At the beginning of the data collection related to SUMS EHCS, in order to the use of unidentifiable data in different studies, informed consent was obtained from all subjects and/or their legal guardian(s). Besides, the protocol of the present study was approved by the Medical Research Ethics Committee of Shiraz University of medical sciences (No: IR.SUMS.REC.1400.304). Also, we confirm that all experiments were performed in accordance with Declaration of Helsinki." }, { "group": { "label": "Consent for publication", "name": "EthicsHeading" }, "name": "Ethics", "order": 3, "value": "It is not applicable to our study." }, { "group": { "label": "Competing interests", "name": "EthicsHeading" }, "name": "Ethics", "order": 4, "value": "Elahe Shamshirgardi, Seyed Jalil Masoumi, Asma Kazemi, Mehran Nouri, Zeynab Shahsavani, Cain C. T. Clark, Mehrdad Behzadi, Marzieh Akbarzadeh declare that there are no conflicts of interest." } ], "author": [ { "ORCID": "https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7991-6932", "affiliation": [], "authenticated-orcid": false, "family": "Shamshirgardi", "given": "Elahe", "sequence": "first" }, { "ORCID": "https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6712-6802", "affiliation": [], "authenticated-orcid": false, "family": "Masoumi", "given": "Seyed Jalil", "sequence": "additional" }, { "ORCID": "https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5032-0078", "affiliation": [], "authenticated-orcid": false, "family": "Kazemi", "given": "Asma", "sequence": "additional" }, { "ORCID": "https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7031-3542", "affiliation": [], "authenticated-orcid": false, "family": "Nouri", "given": "Mehran", "sequence": "additional" }, { "ORCID": "https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6194-5305", "affiliation": [], "authenticated-orcid": false, "family": "Shahsavani", "given": "Zeynab", "sequence": "additional" }, { "ORCID": "https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6610-4617", "affiliation": [], "authenticated-orcid": false, "family": "Clark", "given": "Cain C. T.", "sequence": "additional" }, { "ORCID": "https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2029-5008", "affiliation": [], "authenticated-orcid": false, "family": "Behzadi", "given": "Mehrdad", "sequence": "additional" }, { "ORCID": "https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7646-2162", "affiliation": [], "authenticated-orcid": false, "family": "Akbarzadeh", "given": "Marzieh", "sequence": "additional" } ], "container-title": "Journal of Health, Population and Nutrition", "container-title-short": "J Health Popul Nutr", "content-domain": { "crossmark-restriction": false, "domain": [ "link.springer.com" ] }, "created": { "date-parts": [ [ 2025, 6, 17 ] ], "date-time": "2025-06-17T10:39:27Z", "timestamp": 1750156767000 }, "deposited": { "date-parts": [ [ 2025, 6, 17 ] ], "date-time": "2025-06-17T10:39:29Z", "timestamp": 1750156769000 }, "indexed": { "date-parts": [ [ 2025, 6, 18 ] ], "date-time": "2025-06-18T04:04:51Z", "timestamp": 1750219491653, "version": "3.41.0" }, "is-referenced-by-count": 0, "issue": "1", "issued": { "date-parts": [ [ 2025, 6, 17 ] ] }, "journal-issue": { "issue": "1", "published-online": { "date-parts": [ [ 2025, 12 ] ] } }, "language": "en", "license": [ { "URL": "https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0", "content-version": "tdm", "delay-in-days": 0, "start": { "date-parts": [ [ 2025, 6, 17 ] ], "date-time": "2025-06-17T00:00:00Z", "timestamp": 1750118400000 } }, { "URL": "https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0", "content-version": "vor", "delay-in-days": 0, "start": { "date-parts": [ [ 2025, 6, 17 ] ], "date-time": "2025-06-17T00:00:00Z", "timestamp": 1750118400000 } } ], "link": [ { "URL": "https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1186/s41043-025-00958-4.pdf", "content-type": "application/pdf", "content-version": "vor", "intended-application": "text-mining" }, { "URL": "https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/s41043-025-00958-4/fulltext.html", "content-type": "text/html", "content-version": "vor", "intended-application": "text-mining" }, { "URL": "https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1186/s41043-025-00958-4.pdf", "content-type": "application/pdf", "content-version": "vor", "intended-application": "similarity-checking" } ], "member": "297", "original-title": [], "prefix": "10.1186", "published": { "date-parts": [ [ 2025, 6, 17 ] ] }, "published-online": { "date-parts": [ [ 2025, 6, 17 ] ] }, "publisher": "Springer Science and Business Media LLC", "reference": [ { "key": "958_CR1", "unstructured": "Coronavirus Statistics. https://www.worldometers.info/coronavirus/" }, { "DOI": "10.1093/jn/nxab059", "author": "PT James", "doi-asserted-by": "publisher", "first-page": "1854", "issue": "7", "journal-title": "J Nutr", "key": "958_CR2", "unstructured": "James PT, Ali Z, Armitage AE, et al. The role of nutrition in COVID-19 susceptibility and severity of disease: a systematic review. J Nutr. 2021;151(7):1854–78.", "volume": "151", "year": "2021" }, { "DOI": "10.1016/s2213-8587(20)30238-2", "author": "M Apicella", "doi-asserted-by": "publisher", "first-page": "782", "issue": "9", "journal-title": "Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol", "key": "958_CR3", "unstructured": "Apicella M, Campopiano MC, Mantuano M, Mazoni L, Coppelli A, Del Prato S. COVID-19 in people with diabetes: understanding the reasons for worse outcomes. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol. 2020;8(9):782–92. https://doi.org/10.1016/s2213-8587(20)30238-2.", "volume": "8", "year": "2020" }, { "author": "L Orioli", "key": "958_CR4", "unstructured": "Orioli L, Hermans MP, Thissen J-P, Maiter D, Vandeleene B, Yombi J-C. COVID-19 in diabetic patients: related risks and specifics of management. Amsterdam: Elsevier; 2020.", "volume-title": "COVID-19 in diabetic patients: related risks and specifics of management", "year": "2020" }, { "DOI": "10.1016/j.diabres.2020.108142", "author": "A Hussain", "doi-asserted-by": "publisher", "first-page": "108142", "journal-title": "Diabetes Res Clin Pract", "key": "958_CR5", "unstructured": "Hussain A, Bhowmik B, do Vale Moreira NC. COVID-19 and diabetes: knowledge in progress. Diabetes Res Clin Pract. 2020;162:108142.", "volume": "162", "year": "2020" }, { "DOI": "10.3390/nu12051466", "author": "I Zabetakis", "doi-asserted-by": "publisher", "first-page": "1466", "issue": "5", "journal-title": "Nutrients", "key": "958_CR6", "unstructured": "Zabetakis I, Lordan R, Norton C, Tsoupras A. COVID-19: the inflammation link and the role of nutrition in potential mitigation. Nutrients. 2020;12(5):1466.", "volume": "12", "year": "2020" }, { "DOI": "10.3389/fpubh.2020.00184", "author": "FM Finucane", "doi-asserted-by": "publisher", "first-page": "184", "journal-title": "Fron Public Health", "key": "958_CR7", "unstructured": "Finucane FM, Davenport C. Coronavirus and obesity: Could insulin resistance mediate the severity of Covid-19 infection? Fron Public Health. 2020;8:184.", "volume": "8", "year": "2020" }, { "DOI": "10.1111/1753-0407.13137", "author": "AR Saand", "doi-asserted-by": "publisher", "first-page": "253", "issue": "3", "journal-title": "J Diabetes", "key": "958_CR8", "unstructured": "Saand AR, Flores M, Kewan T, et al. Does inpatient hyperglycemia predict a worse outcome in COVID-19 intensive care unit patients? J Diabetes. 2021;13(3):253–60.", "volume": "13", "year": "2021" }, { "DOI": "10.1136/openhrt-2020-001356", "author": "ID Cooper", "doi-asserted-by": "publisher", "first-page": "e001356", "issue": "2", "journal-title": "Open heart", "key": "958_CR9", "unstructured": "Cooper ID, Crofts CA, DiNicolantonio JJ, et al. Relationships between hyperinsulinaemia, magnesium, vitamin D, thrombosis and COVID-19: rationale for clinical management. Open heart. 2020;7(2):e001356.", "volume": "7", "year": "2020" }, { "DOI": "10.1016/j.febslet.2007.11.057", "author": "C De Luca", "doi-asserted-by": "publisher", "first-page": "97", "issue": "1", "journal-title": "FEBS Lett", "key": "958_CR10", "unstructured": "De Luca C, Olefsky JM. Inflammation and insulin resistance. FEBS Lett. 2008;582(1):97–105.", "volume": "582", "year": "2008" }, { "DOI": "10.1111/1753-0407.13085", "author": "A Rajpal", "doi-asserted-by": "publisher", "first-page": "895", "issue": "12", "journal-title": "J Diabetes", "key": "958_CR11", "unstructured": "Rajpal A, Rahimi L, Ismail-Beigi F. Factors leading to high morbidity and mortality of COVID-19 in patients with type 2 diabetes. J Diabetes. 2020;12(12):895–908.", "volume": "12", "year": "2020" }, { "DOI": "10.30476/ijns.2024.100096.1267", "author": "N Sherafati", "doi-asserted-by": "publisher", "first-page": "14", "issue": "1", "journal-title": "Int J Nutr Sci", "key": "958_CR12", "unstructured": "Sherafati N, Behzadi M, Bideshki MV, et al. Global leadership initiative on malnutrition and mini nutritional assessment in evaluation of nutritional status of COVID-19 patients. Int J Nutr Sci. 2024;9(1):14–22. https://doi.org/10.30476/ijns.2024.100096.1267.", "volume": "9", "year": "2024" }, { "DOI": "10.3390/jcm9082589", "author": "A Fernández-Quintela", "doi-asserted-by": "publisher", "first-page": "2589", "issue": "8", "journal-title": "J Clin Med", "key": "958_CR13", "unstructured": "Fernández-Quintela A, Milton-Laskibar I, Trepiana J, et al. Key aspects in nutritional management of COVID-19 patients. J Clin Med. 2020;9(8):2589.", "volume": "9", "year": "2020" }, { "DOI": "10.1038/s41430-020-0664-x", "author": "L Brugliera", "doi-asserted-by": "publisher", "first-page": "1", "journal-title": "Eur J Clin Nutr", "key": "958_CR14", "unstructured": "Brugliera L, Spina A, Castellazzi P, et al. Nutritional management of COVID-19 patients in a rehabilitation unit. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2020;74:1–4.", "volume": "74", "year": "2020" }, { "author": "F Shahrdami", "first-page": "54", "issue": "4", "journal-title": "Iran J Obstet Gynecol Infertil", "key": "958_CR15", "unstructured": "Shahrdami F, Alipour B, Roohelhami E, Rashidkhani B. Association of dietary glycemic index and glycemic load with serum lipids level in women with polycystic ovary syndrome. Iran J Obstet Gynecol Infertil. 2020;23(4):54–61.", "volume": "23", "year": "2020" }, { "DOI": "10.3390/nu11010013", "author": "EM Brouwer-Brolsma", "doi-asserted-by": "publisher", "first-page": "13", "issue": "1", "journal-title": "Nutrients", "key": "958_CR16", "unstructured": "Brouwer-Brolsma EM, Berendsen AA, Sluik D, et al. The glycaemic index-food-frequency questionnaire: development and validation of a food frequency questionnaire designed to estimate the dietary intake of glycaemic index and glycaemic load: an effort by the PREVIEW consortium. Nutrients. 2019;11(1):13.", "volume": "11", "year": "2019" }, { "DOI": "10.2337/diacare.28.6.1397", "author": "C Lau", "doi-asserted-by": "publisher", "first-page": "1397", "issue": "6", "journal-title": "Diabetes Care", "key": "958_CR17", "unstructured": "Lau C, Færch K, Glümer C, et al. Dietary glycemic index, glycemic load, fiber, simple sugars, and insulin resistance: the Inter99 study. Diabetes Care. 2005;28(6):1397–403.", "volume": "28", "year": "2005" }, { "DOI": "10.3390/ijms19113662", "author": "C Galarregui", "doi-asserted-by": "publisher", "first-page": "3662", "issue": "11", "journal-title": "Int J Mol Sci", "key": "958_CR18", "unstructured": "Galarregui C, Zulet MÁ, Cantero I, et al. Interplay of glycemic index, glycemic load, and dietary antioxidant capacity with insulin resistance in subjects with a cardiometabolic risk profile. Int J Mol Sci. 2018;19(11):3662.", "volume": "19", "year": "2018" }, { "DOI": "10.1007/s00394-021-02621-0", "author": "HL Huang", "doi-asserted-by": "publisher", "first-page": "4607", "issue": "8", "journal-title": "Eur J Nutr", "key": "958_CR19", "unstructured": "Huang HL, Abe SK, Sawada N, et al. Dietary glycemic index, glycemic load and mortality: Japan Public Health Center-based prospective study. Eur J Nutr. 2021;60(8):4607–20. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00394-021-02621-0.", "volume": "60", "year": "2021" }, { "DOI": "10.1016/j.tripleo.2007.06.027", "author": "S-J Janket", "doi-asserted-by": "publisher", "first-page": "173", "issue": "2", "journal-title": "Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endodontol", "key": "958_CR20", "unstructured": "Janket S-J, Jones JA, Meurman JH, Baird AE, Van Dyke TE. Oral infection, hyperglycemia, and endothelial dysfunction. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endodontol. 2008;105(2):173–9.", "volume": "105", "year": "2008" }, { "DOI": "10.1016/j.nut.2020.111069", "author": "MH Sohouli", "doi-asserted-by": "publisher", "first-page": "111069", "journal-title": "Nutrition", "key": "958_CR21", "unstructured": "Sohouli MH, Haghshenas N, Pouladi F, et al. Association between glycemic index and Helicobacter pylori infection risk among adults: A case-control study. Nutrition. 2021;83:111069.", "volume": "83", "year": "2021" }, { "DOI": "10.1001/jama.287.18.2414", "author": "DS Ludwig", "doi-asserted-by": "publisher", "first-page": "2414", "issue": "18", "journal-title": "JAMA", "key": "958_CR22", "unstructured": "Ludwig DS. The glycemic index: physiological mechanisms relating to obesity, diabetes, and cardiovascular disease. JAMA. 2002;287(18):2414–23. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.287.18.2414.", "volume": "287", "year": "2002" }, { "DOI": "10.1093/aje/kwx314", "author": "H Poustchi", "doi-asserted-by": "publisher", "first-page": "647", "issue": "4", "journal-title": "Am J Epidemiol", "key": "958_CR23", "unstructured": "Poustchi H, Eghtesad S, Kamangar F, et al. Prospective epidemiological research studies in Iran (the PERSIAN cohort study): rationale, objectives, and design. Am J Epidemiol. 2018;187(4):647–55.", "volume": "187", "year": "2018" }, { "DOI": "10.1093/ajcn/76.3.535", "author": "TT Fung", "doi-asserted-by": "publisher", "first-page": "535", "issue": "3", "journal-title": "Am J Clin Nutr", "key": "958_CR24", "unstructured": "Fung TT, Hu FB, Pereira MA, et al. Whole-grain intake and the risk of type 2 diabetes: a prospective study in men. Am J Clin Nutr. 2002;76(3):535–40.", "volume": "76", "year": "2002" }, { "DOI": "10.5812/asjsm.34781", "author": "A Vasheghani-Farahani", "doi-asserted-by": "publisher", "first-page": "106", "issue": "2", "journal-title": "Asian J Sports Med", "key": "958_CR25", "unstructured": "Vasheghani-Farahani A, Tahmasbi M, Asheri H, Ashraf H, Nedjat S, Kordi R. The Persian, last 7-day, long form of the international physical activity questionnaire: translation and validation study. Asian J Sports Med. 2011;2(2):106.", "volume": "2", "year": "2011" }, { "author": "M Ghaffarpour", "first-page": "42", "issue": "213", "journal-title": "Tehran Nashre Olume Keshavarzy.", "key": "958_CR26", "unstructured": "Ghaffarpour M, Houshiar-Rad A, Kianfar H. The manual for household measures, cooking yields factors and edible portion of foods. Tehran Nashre Olume Keshavarzy. 1999;7(213):42–58.", "volume": "7", "year": "1999" }, { "DOI": "10.3389/fnut.2023.1059870", "author": "S Eghtesad", "doi-asserted-by": "publisher", "first-page": "1059870", "journal-title": "Front Nutr", "key": "958_CR27", "unstructured": "Eghtesad S, Hekmatdoost A, Faramarzi E, et al. Validity and reproducibility of a food frequency questionnaire assessing food group intake in the PERSIAN Cohort Study. Front Nutr. 2023;10:1059870.", "volume": "10", "year": "2023" }, { "DOI": "10.1093/jn/136.6.1604", "author": "ML Neuhouser", "doi-asserted-by": "publisher", "first-page": "1604", "issue": "6", "journal-title": "J Nutr", "key": "958_CR28", "unstructured": "Neuhouser ML, Tinker LF, Thomson C, et al. Development of a glycemic index database for food frequency questionnaires used in epidemiologic studies. J Nutr. 2006;136(6):1604–9.", "volume": "136", "year": "2006" }, { "DOI": "10.1016/j.metabol.2007.11.002", "author": "EB Levitan", "doi-asserted-by": "publisher", "first-page": "437", "issue": "3", "journal-title": "Metabolism", "key": "958_CR29", "unstructured": "Levitan EB, Cook NR, Stampfer MJ, et al. Dietary glycemic index, dietary glycemic load, blood lipids, and C-reactive protein. Metabolism. 2008;57(3):437–43.", "volume": "57", "year": "2008" }, { "DOI": "10.2337/dc08-1239", "author": "FS Atkinson", "doi-asserted-by": "publisher", "first-page": "2281", "issue": "12", "journal-title": "Diabetes Care", "key": "958_CR30", "unstructured": "Atkinson FS, Foster-Powell K, Brand-Miller JC. International tables of glycemic index and glycemic load values: 2008. Diabetes Care. 2008;31(12):2281–3.", "volume": "31", "year": "2008" }, { "key": "958_CR31", "unstructured": "Taleban F, Esmaeili M. Glycemic index of Iranian foods. National Nutrition and Food Technology Research Institute publication. 1999." }, { "key": "958_CR32", "unstructured": "Organization WH. Global surveillance for COVID-19 caused by human infection with COVID-19 virus: interim guidance, 20 March 2020. 2020." }, { "DOI": "10.4239/wjd.v12.i9.1550", "author": "C Gangadharan", "doi-asserted-by": "publisher", "first-page": "1550", "issue": "9", "journal-title": "World J Diabetes", "key": "958_CR33", "unstructured": "Gangadharan C, Ahluwalia R, Sigamani A. Diabetes and COVID-19: role of insulin resistance as a risk factor for COVID-19 severity. World J Diabetes. 2021;12(9):1550.", "volume": "12", "year": "2021" }, { "DOI": "10.1016/j.pcd.2021.04.004", "author": "N Govender", "doi-asserted-by": "publisher", "first-page": "629", "issue": "4", "journal-title": "Prim Care Diabetes", "key": "958_CR34", "unstructured": "Govender N, Khaliq OP, Moodley J, Naicker T. Insulin resistance in COVID-19 and diabetes. Prim Care Diabetes. 2021;15(4):629–34.", "volume": "15", "year": "2021" }, { "DOI": "10.1186/s13098-021-00639-2", "author": "A Santos", "doi-asserted-by": "publisher", "first-page": "1", "issue": "1", "journal-title": "Diabetol Metab Syndr", "key": "958_CR35", "unstructured": "Santos A, Magro DO, Evangelista-Poderoso R, Saad MJA. Diabetes, obesity, and insulin resistance in COVID-19: molecular interrelationship and therapeutic implications. Diabetol Metab Syndr. 2021;13(1):1–14.", "volume": "13", "year": "2021" }, { "DOI": "10.1186/s12916-021-02168-1", "author": "M Deschasaux-Tanguy", "doi-asserted-by": "publisher", "first-page": "290", "issue": "1", "journal-title": "BMC Med", "key": "958_CR36", "unstructured": "Deschasaux-Tanguy M, Srour B, Bourhis L, et al. Nutritional risk factors for SARS-CoV-2 infection: a prospective study within the NutriNet-Santé cohort. BMC Med. 2021;19(1):290. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12916-021-02168-1.", "volume": "19", "year": "2021" }, { "DOI": "10.3390/nu12061562", "author": "M Iddir", "doi-asserted-by": "publisher", "first-page": "1562", "issue": "6", "journal-title": "Nutrients", "key": "958_CR37", "unstructured": "Iddir M, Brito A, Dingeo G, et al. Strengthening the immune system and reducing inflammation and oxidative stress through diet and nutrition: considerations during the COVID-19 crisis. Nutrients. 2020;12(6):1562.", "volume": "12", "year": "2020" }, { "DOI": "10.1093/ajcn/nqx042", "author": "A Milajerdi", "doi-asserted-by": "publisher", "first-page": "593", "issue": "4", "journal-title": "Am J Clin Nutr", "key": "958_CR38", "unstructured": "Milajerdi A, Saneei P, Larijani B, Esmaillzadeh A. The effect of dietary glycemic index and glycemic load on inflammatory biomarkers: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials. Am J Clin Nutr. 2018;107(4):593–606.", "volume": "107", "year": "2018" }, { "DOI": "10.3390/foods9050675", "author": "F Scarmozzino", "doi-asserted-by": "publisher", "key": "958_CR39", "unstructured": "Scarmozzino F, Visioli F. Covid-19 and the subsequent lockdown modified dietary habits of almost half the population in an Italian sample. 2020. Foods. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods9050675.", "year": "2020" }, { "DOI": "10.4103/jrms.JRMS_1234_20", "author": "M Akbarzadeh", "doi-asserted-by": "publisher", "first-page": "116", "issue": "1", "journal-title": "J Res Med Sci", "key": "958_CR40", "unstructured": "Akbarzadeh M, Barati-Boldaji R, Mohsenpour MA, et al. Did Iranians change their eating behavior following COVID-19 outbreak? J Res Med Sci. 2021;26(1):116.", "volume": "26", "year": "2021" } ], "reference-count": 40, "references-count": 40, "relation": { "references": [ { "asserted-by": "subject", "id": "10.3390/foods9050675", "id-type": "doi" } ] }, "resource": { "primary": { "URL": "https://jhpn.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s41043-025-00958-4" } }, "score": 1, "short-title": [], "source": "Crossref", "subject": [], "subtitle": [], "title": "Dietary glycemic index, glycemic load, and risk of COVID-19: a prospective cohort study", "type": "journal-article", "update-policy": "https://doi.org/10.1007/springer_crossmark_policy", "volume": "44" }