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Antiviral and anti-inflammatory efficacy of nanoencapsulated brazilian green propolis against SARS-CoV-2

Ferreira et al., Scientific Reports, doi:10.1038/s41598-025-05683-w, Jul 2025
https://c19early.org/ferreira5.html
In Vitro and Ex Vivo study showing that microencapsulated Brazilian green propolis (ME-GP) inhibits SARS-CoV-2 infection and reduces inflammatory responses. Authors created a microemulsion containing 11% Brazilian green propolis extract with high encapsulation efficiency (>99%) for key compounds artepillin C and baccharin. ME-GP demonstrated significant antiviral activity against multiple SARS-CoV-2 variants in Caco-2 cells, with up to 99% reduction in viral load for the Delta variant with prophylaxis. Time-of-addition assays revealed ME-GP acts early in the viral life cycle, likely interfering with viral entry or immediate post-entry events. Additionally, ME-GP reduced viral load by 80% in human tonsil tissue and significantly decreased inflammatory cytokines (IL-1β, IL-6, TNF-α). Artepillin C, the main bioactive compound in Brazilian green propolis, demonstrated antiviral activity against SARS-CoV-2 with 67-87% viral load reduction at 15-30 µg/mL.
9 preclinical studies support the efficacy of propolis for COVID-19:
In Silico studies predict inhibition of SARS-CoV-2 with propolis or metabolites via binding to the spikeA,1, MproB,1, and RNA-dependent RNA polymeraseC,1 proteins. Propolis may inhibit spike protein and ACE2 interaction6, may inhibit SARS-CoV-2 through interactions with MAPK14, inhibited SARS-CoV-2 in Vero E6 cells at a concentration comparable to a combination of four antiviral components7, may mitigate hyperinflammation via STAT1, NOS2, and BTK targeting2, may inhibit SARS-CoV-2 entry by interfering with ACE2/TMPRSS2 interaction5, modulates inflammatory responses by reducing pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α5, and may suppress Epstein-Barr Virus reactivation2.
a. The trimeric spike (S) protein is a glycoprotein that mediates viral entry by binding to the host ACE2 receptor, is critical for SARS-CoV-2's ability to infect host cells, and is a target of neutralizing antibodies. Inhibition of the spike protein prevents viral attachment, halting infection at the earliest stage.
b. The main protease or Mpro, also known as 3CLpro or nsp5, is a cysteine protease that cleaves viral polyproteins into functional units needed for replication. Inhibiting Mpro disrupts the SARS-CoV-2 lifecycle within the host cell, preventing the creation of new copies.
c. RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp), also called nsp12, is the core enzyme of the viral replicase-transcriptase complex that copies the positive-sense viral RNA genome into negative-sense templates for progeny RNA synthesis. Inhibiting RdRp blocks viral genome replication and transcription.
Ferreira et al., 1 Jul 2025, peer-reviewed, 9 authors. Contact: pmarcato@fcfrp.usp.br.
Ex Vivo studies are an important part of preclinical research, however results may be very different in vivo.
Antiviral and anti-inflammatory efficacy of nanoencapsulated brazilian green propolis against SARS-CoV-2
Iasmin Rosanne Silva Ferreira, Isabela Araújo Justino, Ronaldo Bragança Martins, Maria Vitória Oliveira Souza, Thais Melquiades De Lima, Ana Maria De Freitas Pinheiro, Eurico Arruda, Jairo Kenupp Bastos, Priscyla Daniely Marcato
Scientific Reports, doi:10.1038/s41598-025-05683-w
The global COVID-19 pandemic, caused by SARS-CoV-2, continues to pose a significant threat to public health and the economy. SARS-CoV-2 is highly contagious, transmitted primarily through direct contact or inhalation of droplets, and can cause severe respiratory illnesses and other health complications, including post-acute COVID-19 syndrome. This study explored the antiviral potential of Brazilian green propolis, a natural product rich in flavonoids and phenolic compounds encapsulated in a microemulsion, to enhance its stability and antiviral effects. Brazilian green propolis extract was encapsulated in a microemulsion (ME-GP) and characterized using various physicochemical techniques. Furthermore, the antiviral and anti-inflammatory activities of ME-GP was evaluated in vitro and exvivo against SARS-CoV-2. For this, cells or tonsils were treated with ME-GP followed by infection with SARS-CoV-2. The microemulsion showed a size of approximately 217 nm, negative zeta potential, high encapsulation efficiency for artepillin C and baccharin (< 99%), and a spherical morphology. The ME-GP formulation was evaluated for antiviral activity against multiple SARS-CoV-2 variants (Wuhan, Gamma, Delta, and Omicron) in Caco-2 cells. The results demonstrated a significant reduction in viral load, particularly for the Wuhan and Delta variants, with up to a 99% reduction in viral load under prophylactic treatment conditions. Time-of-addition assays revealed that ME-GP acts at an early stage in the viral life cycle, likely by interfering with viral entry or immediate post-entry events. Additionally, ME-GP was evaluated in human tonsils, demonstrating an 80% reduction in viral load, suggesting its potential to reduce the transmission and progression of infection. Furthermore, ME-GP exhibited antiinflammatory activity in human tonsils, significantly decreasing IL-1β, IL-6, TNF-α, and TNF-β levels. Thus, this study highlights the promising prophylactic and therapeutic potential of nanoencapsulated green propolis for combating SARS-CoV-2 and its variants, providing a natural adjunct in COVID-19 therapy.
Author contributions Declarations Competing interests The authors declare no competing interests. Additional information Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at h t t p s : / / d o i . o r g / 1 0 . 1 0 3 8 / s 4 1 5 9 8 -0 2 5 -0 5 6 8 3 -w . Correspondence and requests for materials should be addressed to P.D.M. Reprints and permissions information is available at www.nature.com/reprints . Publisher's note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License, which permits any non-commercial use, sharing, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if you modified the licensed material. You do not have permission under this licence to share adapted material derived from this article or parts of it. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the..
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DOI record: { "DOI": "10.1038/s41598-025-05683-w", "ISSN": [ "2045-2322" ], "URL": "http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-05683-w", "alternative-id": [ "5683" ], "article-number": "21627", "assertion": [ { "group": { "label": "Article History", "name": "ArticleHistory" }, "label": "Received", "name": "received", "order": 1, "value": "20 November 2024" }, { "group": { "label": "Article History", "name": "ArticleHistory" }, "label": "Accepted", "name": "accepted", "order": 2, "value": "3 June 2025" }, { "group": { "label": "Article History", "name": "ArticleHistory" }, "label": "First Online", "name": "first_online", "order": 3, "value": "1 July 2025" }, { "group": { "label": "Declarations", "name": "EthicsHeading" }, "name": "Ethics", "order": 1 }, { "group": { "label": "Competing interests", "name": "EthicsHeading" }, "name": "Ethics", "order": 2, "value": "The authors declare no competing interests." } ], "author": [ { "affiliation": [], "family": "Ferreira", "given": "Iasmin Rosanne Silva", "sequence": "first" }, { "affiliation": [], "family": "Justino", "given": "Isabela Araújo", "sequence": "additional" }, { "affiliation": [], "family": "Martins", "given": "Ronaldo Bragança", "sequence": "additional" }, { "affiliation": [], "family": "Souza", "given": "Maria Vitória Oliveira", "sequence": "additional" }, { "affiliation": [], "family": "de Lima", "given": "Thais Melquiades", "sequence": "additional" }, { "affiliation": [], "family": "de Freitas Pinheiro", "given": "Ana Maria", "sequence": "additional" }, { "affiliation": [], "family": "Arruda", "given": "Eurico", "sequence": "additional" }, { "affiliation": [], "family": "Bastos", "given": "Jairo Kenupp", "sequence": "additional" }, { "affiliation": [], "family": "Marcato", "given": "Priscyla Daniely", "sequence": "additional" } ], "container-title": "Scientific Reports", "container-title-short": "Sci Rep", "content-domain": { "crossmark-restriction": false, "domain": [ "link.springer.com" ] }, "created": { "date-parts": [ [ 2025, 7, 1 ] ], "date-time": "2025-07-01T18:22:42Z", "timestamp": 1751394162000 }, "deposited": { "date-parts": [ [ 2025, 7, 1 ] ], "date-time": "2025-07-01T19:09:31Z", "timestamp": 1751396971000 }, "funder": [ { "DOI": "10.13039/501100001807", "award": [ "#2017/04138-8", "#2017/04138-8" ], "doi-asserted-by": "publisher", "id": [ { "asserted-by": "publisher", "id": "10.13039/501100001807", "id-type": "DOI" } ], "name": "Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo" }, { "DOI": "10.13039/501100003593", "award": [ "# 465687/2014-8" ], "doi-asserted-by": "publisher", "id": [ { "asserted-by": "publisher", "id": "10.13039/501100003593", "id-type": "DOI" } ], "name": "Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico" } ], "indexed": { "date-parts": [ [ 2025, 7, 2 ] ], "date-time": "2025-07-02T04:20:36Z", "timestamp": 1751430036829, "version": "3.41.0" }, "is-referenced-by-count": 0, "issue": "1", "issued": { "date-parts": [ [ 2025, 7, 1 ] ] }, "journal-issue": { "issue": "1", "published-online": { "date-parts": [ [ 2025, 12 ] ] } }, "language": "en", "license": [ { "URL": "https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0", "content-version": "tdm", "delay-in-days": 0, "start": { "date-parts": [ [ 2025, 7, 1 ] ], "date-time": "2025-07-01T00:00:00Z", "timestamp": 1751328000000 } }, { "URL": "https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0", "content-version": "vor", "delay-in-days": 0, "start": { "date-parts": [ [ 2025, 7, 1 ] ], "date-time": "2025-07-01T00:00:00Z", "timestamp": 1751328000000 } } ], "link": [ { "URL": "https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-025-05683-w.pdf", "content-type": "application/pdf", "content-version": "vor", "intended-application": "text-mining" }, { "URL": "https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-025-05683-w", "content-type": "text/html", "content-version": "vor", "intended-application": "text-mining" }, { "URL": "https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-025-05683-w.pdf", "content-type": "application/pdf", "content-version": "vor", "intended-application": "similarity-checking" } ], "member": "297", "original-title": [], "prefix": "10.1038", "published": { "date-parts": [ [ 2025, 7, 1 ] ] }, "published-online": { "date-parts": [ [ 2025, 7, 1 ] ] }, "publisher": "Springer Science and Business Media LLC", "reference": [ { "DOI": "10.3390/ijms21072657", "doi-asserted-by": "publisher", "key": "5683_CR1", "unstructured": "Tu, Y. 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