Targeting SARS-CoV-2 Non-Structural Proteins: A Blueprint for Next-Generation Small-Molecule Coronavirus Antivirals

DOI record: { "DOI": "10.3390/pharmaceutics18060693", "ISSN": [ "1999-4923" ], "URL": "http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/pharmaceutics18060693", "abstract": "<jats:p>The SARS-CoV-2 non-structural proteome remains the most clinically validated and strategically important landscape for direct-acting small-molecule antiviral drug discovery. The success of inhibitors targeting the main protease (Mpro, Nsp5) and RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp, Nsp12) has firmly established viral replication enzymes as tractable, druggable, and therapeutically relevant targets, while setting clear benchmarks for translational antiviral development. Building on this foundation, a second wave of non-structural protein (Nsp) targets has emerged with increasing translational promise, including the papain-like protease (PLpro), the bifunctional Nsp14 proofreading and capping machinery, Nsp16 2′-O-methyltransferase, Nsp13 helicase, and Nsp15 endoribonuclease. In parallel, additional components such as Nsp1 and the Mac1 domain of Nsp3 continue to expand the antiviral design space, although they remain at earlier stages of chemical validation. In this review, we comprehensively assess SARS-CoV-2 non-structural proteins through a medicinal chemistry and translational lens, with an emphasis on structural tractability, mechanism of action, quality of chemical matter, cellular and in vivo antiviral evidence, evolutionary conservation, resistance liabilities, and developability. Particular attention is given to the features that distinguish tool compounds from genuinely actionable leads and to the opportunities for rational combination regimens that extend beyond first-generation protease- and polymerase-centred therapy. Collectively, the non-structural proteome offers the strongest foundation for next-generation and potentially broader-spectrum coronavirus antivirals with improved resilience to viral evolution.</jats:p>", "alternative-id": [ "pharmaceutics18060693" ], "author": [ { "ORCID": "https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7463-1468", "affiliation": [ { "name": "UCL School of Pharmacy, University College London, London WC1N 1AX, UK" } ], "authenticated-orcid": false, "family": "Porta", "given": "Exequiel O. J.", "role": [ { "role": "author", "vocabulary": "crossref" } ], "sequence": "first" }, { "affiliation": [ { "name": "UCL School of Pharmacy, University College London, London WC1N 1AX, UK" }, { "name": "Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah 22252, Saudi Arabia" } ], "family": "AlKharboush", "given": "Dana F.", "role": [ { "role": "author", "vocabulary": "crossref" } ], "sequence": "additional" }, { "affiliation": [ { "name": "UCL School of Pharmacy, University College London, London WC1N 1AX, UK" } ], "family": "Jackson", "given": "Lauren", "role": [ { "role": "author", "vocabulary": "crossref" } ], "sequence": "additional" }, { "affiliation": [ { "name": "UCL School of Pharmacy, University College London, London WC1N 1AX, UK" } ], "family": "Pang", "given": "Felix", "role": [ { "role": "author", "vocabulary": "crossref" } ], "sequence": "additional" }, { "affiliation": [ { "name": "UCL School of Pharmacy, University College London, London WC1N 1AX, UK" } ], "family": "Darin", "given": "Aylin", "role": [ { "role": "author", "vocabulary": "crossref" } ], "sequence": "additional" }, { "affiliation": [ { "name": "UCL School of Pharmacy, University College London, London WC1N 1AX, UK" } ], "family": "Louka", "given": "Joy", "role": [ { "role": "author", "vocabulary": "crossref" } ], "sequence": "additional" }, { "affiliation": [ { "name": "UCL School of Pharmacy, University College London, London WC1N 1AX, UK" } ], "family": "Quamruzzaman", "given": "Mohammed", "role": [ { "role": "author", "vocabulary": "crossref" } ], "sequence": "additional" }, { "ORCID": "https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0145-8761", "affiliation": [ { "name": "UCL School of Pharmacy, University College London, London WC1N 1AX, UK" } ], "authenticated-orcid": false, "family": "Shi", "given": "Xinyue", "role": [ { "role": "author", "vocabulary": "crossref" } ], "sequence": "additional" }, { "affiliation": [ { "name": "UCL School of Pharmacy, University College London, London WC1N 1AX, UK" } ], "family": "Wells", "given": "Geoffrey", "role": [ { "role": "author", "vocabulary": "crossref" } ], "sequence": "additional" }, { "ORCID": "https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6096-9102", "affiliation": [ { "name": "UCL School of Pharmacy, University College London, London WC1N 1AX, UK" } ], "authenticated-orcid": false, "family": "Kozielski", "given": "Frank", "role": [ { "role": "author", "vocabulary": "crossref" } ], "sequence": "additional" } ], "container-title": "Pharmaceutics", "container-title-short": "Pharmaceutics", "content-domain": { "crossmark-restriction": false, "domain": [] }, "created": { "date-parts": [ [ 2026, 6, 3 ] ], "date-time": "2026-06-03T09:33:14Z", "timestamp": 1780479194000 }, "deposited": { "date-parts": [ [ 2026, 6, 3 ] ], "date-time": "2026-06-03T09:43:34Z", "timestamp": 1780479814000 }, "funder": [ { "DOI": "10.13039/501100000265", "award": [ "MR/X013995/1" ], "award-info": [ { "award-number": [ "MR/X013995/1" ] } ], "doi-asserted-by": "publisher", "id": [ { "asserted-by": "publisher", "id": "10.13039/501100000265", "id-type": "DOI" } ], "name": "UK Research and Innovation—Medical Research Council" }, { "award": [ "MR/X013995/1" ], "award-info": [ { "award-number": [ "MR/X013995/1" ] } ], "id": [ { "asserted-by": "publisher", "id": "https://ror.org/03x94j517", "id-type": "ROR" } ] } ], "indexed": { "date-parts": [ [ 2026, 6, 3 ] ], "date-time": "2026-06-03T10:15:48Z", "timestamp": 1780481748166, "version": "3.54.1" }, "is-referenced-by-count": 0, "issue": "6", "issued": { "date-parts": [ [ 2026, 6, 2 ] ] }, "journal-issue": { "issue": "6", "published-online": { "date-parts": [ [ 2026, 6 ] ] } }, "language": "en", "license": [ { "URL": "https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "content-version": "vor", "delay-in-days": 0, "start": { "date-parts": [ [ 2026, 6, 2 ] ], "date-time": "2026-06-02T00:00:00Z", "timestamp": 1780358400000 } } ], "link": [ { "URL": "https://www.mdpi.com/1999-4923/18/6/693/pdf", "content-type": "unspecified", "content-version": "vor", "intended-application": "similarity-checking" } ], "member": "1968", "original-title": [], "page": "693", "prefix": "10.3390", "published": { "date-parts": [ [ 2026, 6, 2 ] ] }, "published-online": { "date-parts": [ [ 2026, 6, 2 ] ] }, "publisher": "MDPI AG", "reference": [ { "DOI": "10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2020.105924", "article-title": "Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) and Coronavirus Disease-2019 (COVID-19): The Epidemic and the Challenges", "author": "Lai", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "105924", "journal-title": "Int. 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