The Influence of SARS-CoV-2 Infection on the Development of Selected Neurological Diseases
Klaudia Kryńska, Katarzyna Kuliś, Wiktoria Mazurek, Monika Gudowska-Sawczuk, Monika Zajkowska, Barbara Mroczko
International Journal of Molecular Sciences, doi:10.3390/ijms25168715
In 2024, over 775 million cases of COVID-19 were recorded, including approximately 7 million deaths, indicating its widespread and dangerous nature. The disease is caused by the SARS-CoV-2 virus, which can manifest a wide spectrum of symptoms, from mild infection to respiratory failure and even death. Neurological symptoms, such as headaches, confusion, and impaired consciousness, have also been reported in some COVID-19 patients. These observations suggest the potential of SARS-CoV-2 to invade the central nervous system and induce neuroinflammation during infection. This review specifically explores the relationship between SARS-CoV-2 infection and selected neurological diseases such as multiple sclerosis (MS), ischemic stroke (IS), and Alzheimer's disease (AD). It has been observed that the SARS-CoV-2 virus increases the production of cytokines whose action can cause the destruction of the myelin sheaths of nerve cells. Subsequently, the body may synthesize autoantibodies that attack nerve cells, resulting in damage to the brain's anatomical elements, potentially contributing to the onset of multiple sclerosis. Additionally, SARS-CoV-2 exacerbates inflammation, worsening the clinical condition in individuals already suffering from MS. Moreover, the secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines may lead to an escalation in blood clot formation, which can result in thrombosis, obstructing blood flow to the brain and precipitating an ischemic stroke. AD is characterized by intense inflammation and heightened oxidative stress, both of which are exacerbated during SARS-CoV-2 infection. It has been observed that the SARS-CoV-2 demonstrates enhanced cell entry in the presence of both the ACE2 receptor, which is already elevated in AD and the ApoE ε4 allele. Consequently, the condition worsens and progresses more rapidly, increasing the mortality rate among AD patients. The above information underscores the numerous connections between SARS-CoV-2 infection and neurological diseases.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
References
Alam, Czajkowsky, SARS-CoV-2 infection and oxidative stress: Pathophysiological insight into thrombosis and therapeutic opportunities, Cytokine Growth Factor Rev,
doi:10.1016/j.cytogfr.2021.11.001Atkins, Masoli, Delgado, Pilling, Kuo et al., Preexisting Comorbidities Predicting Severe COVID-19 in Older Adults in the UK Biobank Community Cohort, J. Gerontol. Ser. A,
doi:10.1093/gerona/glaa183Bahouth, Venkatesan, Acute Viral Illnesses and Ischemic Stroke: Pathophysiological Considerations in the Era of the COVID-19 Pandemic, Stroke,
doi:10.1161/STROKEAHA.120.030630Baranova, Cao, Zhang, Causal effect of COVID-19 on Alzheimer's disease: A Mendelian randomization study, J. Med. Virol,
doi:10.1002/jmv.28107Bartas, Volná, Beaudoin, Poulsen, Červe Ň et al., Unheeded SARS-CoV-2 proteins? A deep look into negative-sense RNA, Brief Bioinform,
doi:10.1093/bib/bbac045Bazylewicz, Gudowska-Sawczuk, Mroczko, Kochanowicz, Kułakowska, COVID-19: The Course, Vaccination and Immune Response in People with Multiple Sclerosis: Systematic Review, Int. J. Mol. Sci,
doi:10.3390/ijms24119231Bellucci, Rinaldi, Buscarinu, Reniè, Bigi et al., Multiple Sclerosis and SARS-CoV-2: Has the Interplay Started?, Front. Immunol,
doi:10.3389/fimmu.2021.755333Bianchetti, Rozzini, Guerini, Boffelli, Ranieri et al., Clinical Presentation of COVID19 in Dementia Patients, J. Nutr. Health Aging,
doi:10.1007/s12603-020-1389-1Bostancıklıo Glu, Temporal Correlation Between Neurological and Gastrointestinal Symptoms of SARS-CoV-2, Inflamm. Bowel Dis,
doi:10.1093/ibd/izaa131Capozzi, Riitano, Recalchi, Manganelli, Longo et al., Antiphospholipid antibodies in patients with stroke during COVID-19: A role in the signaling pathway leading to platelet activation, Front. Immunol,
doi:10.3389/fimmu.2023.1129201Cavezzi, Troiani, Corrao, COVID-19: Hemoglobin, iron, and hypoxia beyond inflammation. A narrative review, Clin. Pract,
doi:10.4081/cp.2020.1271Cecchini, Cecchini, SARS-CoV-2 infection pathogenesis is related to oxidative stress as a response to aggression, Med. Hypotheses,
doi:10.1016/j.mehy.2020.110102Chavhan, Wanjari, Kumar, Acharya, Rathod et al., A Comprehensive Review on Navigating the Neurological Landscape of COVID-19: Insights into Etiopathogenesis and Clinical Management, Cureus,
doi:10.7759/cureus.60079Ding, Shults, Gychka, Harris, Suzuki, Protein Expression of Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme 2 (ACE2) is Upregulated in Brains with Alzheimer's Disease, Int. J. Mol. Sci,
doi:10.3390/ijms22041687Drouet, Fifre, Pinçon-Raymond, Vandekerckhove, Rosseneu et al., ApoE protects cortical neurones against neurotoxicity induced by the non-fibrillar C-terminal domain of the amyloid-beta peptide, J. Neurochem,
doi:10.1046/j.1471-4159.2001.00047.xEkker, Verhoeven, Schellekens, Boot, Van Alebeek et al., Risk Factors and Causes of Ischemic Stroke in 1322 Young Adults, Stroke,
doi:10.1161/STROKEAHA.122.040524Fernandes De Souza, Fonseca, Sartori, COVID-19 and Multiple Sclerosis: A Complex Relationship Possibly Aggravated by Low Vitamin D Levels, Cells,
doi:10.3390/cells12050684Gain, Song, Angtuaco, Satta, Kelesidis, The role of oxidative stress in the pathogenesis of infections with coronaviruses, Front. Microbiol,
doi:10.3389/fmicb.2022.1111930Gamblin, King, Kuret, Berry, Binder, Oxidative regulation of fatty acid-induced tau polymerization, Biochemistry,
doi:10.1021/bi001876lGarg, Smith, An update on immunopathogenesis, diagnosis, and treatment of multiple sclerosis, Brain Behav,
doi:10.1002/brb3.362Goeijenbier, Van Wissen, Van De Weg, Jong, Gerdes et al., Review: Viral infections and mechanisms of thrombosis and bleeding, J. Med. Virol,
doi:10.1002/jmv.23354Gudowska-Sawczuk, Mroczko, Free Light Chains as a Novel Diagnostic Biomarker of Immune System Abnormalities in Multiple Sclerosis and HIV Infection, Biomed. Res. Int,
doi:10.1155/2019/8382132Guo, Cao, Hong, Tan, Chen et al., The origin, transmission and clinical therapies on coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) outbreak-An update on the status, Mil. Med. Res,
doi:10.1186/s40779-020-00240-0Guo, Fan, Chen, Wu, Zhang et al., Cardiovascular Implications of Fatal Outcomes of Patients with Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19), Correction in JAMA Cardiol,
doi:10.1001/jamacardio.2020.1017Gupta, Sahu, Prabhakar, Chatterjee, Tyagi et al., Activation of NLRP3 inflammasome complex potentiates venous thrombosis in response to hypoxia, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci,
doi:10.1073/pnas.1620458114Hamilton, Van Remmen, Drake, Yang, Guo et al., Does oxidative damage to DNA increase with age?, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci,
doi:10.1073/pnas.171202698Hamming, Timens, Bulthuis, Lely, Navis et al., Tissue distribution of ACE2 protein, the functional receptor for SARS coronavirus. A first step in understanding SARS pathogenesis, J. Pathol,
doi:10.1002/path.1570Harb, Chen, Chase, Natarajan, Noble, Clinical Features and Outcomes of Patients with Dementia Compared to an Aging Cohort Hospitalized During the Initial New York City COVID-19 Wave, J. Alzheimer's Dis,
doi:10.3233/JAD-210050Hasegawa, Yamaguchi, Omata, Gejyo, Naiki, Interaction between A beta(1-42) and A beta(1-40) in Alzheimer's beta-amyloid fibril formation in vitro, Biochemistry,
doi:10.1021/bi991161mHellner, Walther, Schubert, Albrecht, Angiotensin-(1-7) enhances LTP in the hippocampus through the G-proteincoupled receptor Mas, Mol. Cell Neurosci,
doi:10.1016/j.mcn.2005.03.012Heneka, Kummer, Stutz, Delekate, Schwartz et al., NLRP3 is activated in Alzheimer's disease and contributes to pathology in APP/PS1 mice, Nature,
doi:10.1038/nature11729Iyer, Raghavendra, Nooraine, Jaychandran, COVID-19 outcomes in persons with multiple sclerosis treated with rituximab, Mult. Scler. Relat. Disord,
doi:10.1016/j.msard.2021.103371Jiang, Zhang, Zhou, Zhu, Tian et al., Angiotensin-(1-7) is Reduced and Inversely Correlates with Tau Hyperphosphorylation in Animal Models of Alzheimer's Disease, Mol. Neurobiol,
doi:10.1007/s12035-015-9260-9Kim, Lee, Kim, Serum tumour necrosis factor-α and interleukin-6 levels in Alzheimer's disease and mild cognitive impairment, Psychogeriatrics,
doi:10.1111/psyg.12218Kinney, Bemiller, Murtishaw, Leisgang, Salazar et al., Inflammation as a central mechanism in Alzheimer's disease, Alzheimer's Dement,
doi:10.1016/j.trci.2018.06.014Korwek, Trotter, Ladu, Sullivan, Weeber, ApoE isoform-dependent changes in hippocampal synaptic function, Mol. Neurodegener,
doi:10.1186/1750-1326-4-21Kozlov, Ivanova, Grechko, Wu, Starodubova et al., Involvement of Oxidative Stress and the Innate Immune System in SARS-CoV-2 Infection, Diseases,
doi:10.3390/diseases9010017Kuo, Pilling, Atkins, Masoli, Delgado et al., APOE e4 Genotype Predicts Severe COVID-19 in the UK Biobank Community Cohort, J. Gerontol. A Biol. Sci. Med. Sci,
doi:10.1093/gerona/glaa131Law, Cheung, Ng, Sia, Chan et al., Chemokine up-regulation in SARS-coronavirus-infected, monocyte-derived human dendritic cells, Blood,
doi:10.1182/blood-2004-10-4166Lazaroni, Raslan, Fontes, De Oliveira, Bader et al., Angiotensin-(1-7)/Mas axis integrity is required for the expression of object recognition memory, Neurobiol. Learn Mem,
doi:10.1016/j.nlm.2011.10.003Levine, Leonard, Blauwendraat, Iwaki, Johnson et al., Virus exposure and neurodegenerative disease risk across national biobanks, Neuron,
doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2022.12.029Li, Hearn, Bennett, The role of microbial infection in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease and the opportunity for protection by anti-microbial peptides, Crit. Rev. Microbiol,
doi:10.1080/1040841X.2021.1876630Li, Li, Wang, Zhou, Chang et al., Acute cerebrovascular disease following COVID-19: A single center, retrospective, observational study, Stroke Vasc. Neurol,
doi:10.1136/svn-2020-000431Li, Liu, Lin, Shang, COVID-19 and risk of neurodegenerative disorders: A Mendelian randomization study, Transl. Psychiatry,
doi:10.1038/s41398-022-02052-3Liang, Zhang, Wu, Chen, Wang, The Role of NLRP3 Inflammasome in Alzheimer's Disease and Potential Therapeutic Targets, Front. Pharmacol,
doi:10.3389/fphar.2022.845185Lima, Aloizou, Siokas, Bakirtzis, Liampas et al., Coronaviruses and their relationship with multiple sclerosis: Is the prevalence of multiple sclerosis going to increase after the COVID-19 pandemia?, Rev. Neurosci,
doi:10.1515/revneuro-2021-0148Liu, Liu, Miura, Tanabe, Maeda et al., Conversion of Aβ43 to Aβ40 by the successive action of angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 and angiotensin-converting enzyme, J. Neurosci. Res,
doi:10.1002/jnr.23404Lotz, Blackhurst, Reagin, Funk, Microbial Infections Are a Risk Factor for Neurodegenerative Diseases, Front. Cell Neurosci,
doi:10.3389/fncel.2021.691136Lozano, Naghavi, Foreman, Lim, Shibuya et al., Global and regional mortality from 235 causes of death for 20 age groups in 1990 and 2010: A systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010, Correction in Lancet,
doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(12)61728-0Margoni, Preziosa, Filippi, Rocca, Anti-CD20 therapies for multiple sclerosis: Current status and future perspectives, J. Neurol,
doi:10.1007/s00415-021-10744-xMartín-Jiménez, Muñoz-García, Seoane, Roca-Rodríguez, García-Reyne et al., Cognitive Impairment Is a Common Comorbidity in Deceased COVID-19 Patients: A Hospital-Based Retrospective Cohort Study, J. Alzheimer's Dis,
doi:10.3233/JAD-200937Matsuoka, Picciano, La Francois, Duff, Fibrillar beta-amyloid evokes oxidative damage in a transgenic mouse model of Alzheimer's disease, Neuroscience,
doi:10.1016/S0306-4522(01)00115-4Merki-Feld, Aegidius, Bitzer, Canonico, Kurth et al., Hormonal contraceptives and risk of ischemic stroke in women with migraine: A consensus statement from the European Headache Federation (EHF) and the European Society of Contraception and Reproductive Health (ESC), Correction in J. Headache Pain,
doi:10.1186/s10194-017-0815-1Merkler, Parikh, Mir, Gupta, Kamel et al., Risk of Ischemic Stroke in Patients with Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) vs. Patients with Influenza, JAMA Neurol,
doi:10.1001/jamaneurol.2020.2730Messinis, Papathanasopoulos, Kosmidis, Nasios, Kambanaros, Neuropsychological Features of Multiple Sclerosis: Impact and Rehabilitation, Behav. Neurol,
doi:10.1155/2018/4831647Motaghinejad, Gholami, Possible Neurological and Mental Outcomes of COVID-19 Infection: A Hypothetical Role of ACE-2\Mas\BDNF Signaling Pathway, Int. J. Prev. Med,
doi:10.4103/ijpvm.IJPVM_114_20Motaghinejad, Motevalian, Falak, Heidari, Sharzad et al., Neuroprotective effects of various doses of topiramate against methylphenidate-induced oxidative stress and inflammation in isolated rat amygdala: The possible role of CREB/BDNF signaling pathway, J. Neural Transm,
doi:10.1007/s00702-016-1619-1Motolese, Rossi, Albergo, Stelitano, Villanova et al., The Psychological Impact of COVID-19 Pandemic on People with Multiple Sclerosis, Front. Neurol,
doi:10.3389/fneur.2020.580507Muñoz, Ardiles, Pérez-Espinosa, Núñez-Espinosa, Paula-Lima et al., Redox modifications in synaptic components as biomarkers of cognitive status, in brain aging and disease, Mech. Ageing Dev,
doi:10.1016/j.mad.2020.111250Muñoz-Jurado, Escribano, Caballero-Villarraso, Galván, Agüera et al., Melatonin and multiple sclerosis: Antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and immunomodulator mechanism of action, Inflammopharmacology,
doi:10.1007/s10787-022-01011-0Nichols, Szoeke, Vollset, Abbasi, Abd-Allah et al., regional, and national burden of Alzheimer's disease and other dementias, 1990-2016: A systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2016, Lancet Neurol,
doi:10.1016/S1474-4422(18)30403-4O'donnell, Chin, Rangarajan, Xavier, Liu et al., Global and regional effects of potentially modifiable risk factors associated with acute stroke in 32 countries (INTERSTROKE): A case-control study, Lancet,
doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(16)30506-2Ousseiran, Fares, Chamoun, Neurological manifestations of COVID-19: A systematic review and detailed comprehension, Int. J. Neurosci,
doi:10.1080/00207454.2021.1973000Pal, Berhanu, Desalegn, Kandi, Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2): An Update, Cureus,
doi:10.7759/cureus.7423Park, Song, Oh, Dementia Risk among Coronavirus Disease Survivors: A Nationwide Cohort Study in South Korea, J. Pers. Med,
doi:10.3390/jpm11101015Patterson, Alzheimer's Disease International
Piekut, Hurła, Banaszek, Szejn, Dorszewska et al., Infectious agents and Alzheimer's disease, J. Integr. Neurosci,
doi:10.31083/j.jin2102073Pozzilli, Pugliatti, Vermersch, Grigoriadis, Alkhawajah et al., Diagnosis and treatment of progressive multiple sclerosis: A position paper, Eur. J. Neurol,
doi:10.1111/ene.15593Pu, Wang, Zhang, Zhao, Jiang et al., Projected Global Trends in Ischemic Stroke Incidence, Deaths and Disability-Adjusted Life Years From 2020 to 2030, Correction in Stroke,
doi:10.1161/STROKEAHA.122.040073Ramzy, Montrief, Gottlieb, Brady, Singh et al., COVID-19 cardiac arrest management: A review for emergency clinicians, Am. J. Emerg. Med,
doi:10.1016/j.ajem.2020.08.011Reghunathan, Jayapal, Hsu, Chng, Tai et al., Expression profile of immune response genes in patients with Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome, BMC Immunol,
doi:10.1186/1471-2172-6-2Rousseau, Bhaduri-Mcintosh, Inflammation and Epstein-Barr Virus at the Crossroads of Multiple Sclerosis and Post-Acute Sequelae of COVID-19 Infection, Viruses,
doi:10.3390/v15040949Rubio-Perez, Morillas-Ruiz, A review: Inflammatory process in Alzheimer's disease, role of cytokines, Sci. World J,
doi:10.1100/2012/756357Rudnicka-Dro Żak, Dro Żak, Mizerski, Zaborowski, Ślusarska et al., Links between COVID-19 and Alzheimer's Disease-What Do We Already Know?, Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health,
doi:10.3390/ijerph20032146Sacco, Kasner, Broderick, Caplan, Connors et al., An updated definition of stroke for the 21st century: A statement for healthcare professionals from the American Heart Association/American Stroke Association, Correction in Stroke,
doi:10.1161/STR.0b013e318296aecaSacco, on behalf of the European Headache Federation (EHF) and the European Society of Contraception and Reproductive Health
Sadeghmousavi, Rezaei, COVID-19 and Multiple Sclerosis: Predisposition and Precautions in Treatment SN, Compr. Clin. Med,
doi:10.1007/s42399-020-00504-9Satheesh, Salloum-Asfar, Abdulla, The Potential Role of COVID-19 in the Pathogenesis of Multiple Sclerosis-A Preliminary Report, Viruses,
doi:10.3390/v13102091Schiavetti, Carmisciano, Ponzano, Cordioli, Cocco et al., Signs and symptoms of COVID-19 in patients with multiple sclerosis, Eur. J. Neurol,
doi:10.1111/ene.15554Smeeth, Thomas, Hall, Hubbard, Farrington et al., Risk of myocardial infarction and stroke after acute infection or vaccination, N. Engl. J. Med,
doi:10.1056/NEJMoa041747Song, Fan, Tang, Luo, Liu et al., The effects of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) on ischemic stroke and the possible underlying mechanisms, Int. J. Neurosci,
doi:10.1080/00207454.2021.1897588Stancu, Cremers, Vanrusselt, Couturier, Vanoosthuyse et al., Aggregated Tau activates NLRP3-ASC inflammasome exacerbating exogenously seeded and non-exogenously seeded Tau pathology in vivo, Acta Neuropathol,
doi:10.1007/s00401-018-01957-yTan, Goh, Leow, Tambyah, Ang et al., COVID-19 and ischemic stroke: A systematic review and meta-summary of the literature, J. Thromb. Thrombolysis,
doi:10.1007/s11239-020-02228-yTejera, Mercan, Sanchez-Caro, Hanan, Greenberg et al., Systemic inflammation impairs microglial Aβ clearance through NLRP3 inflammasome, EMBO J,
doi:10.15252/embj.2018101064Tomassini, Sinclair, Sawlani, Overell, Pearson et al., Diagnosis and management of multiple sclerosis: MRI in clinical practice, J. Neurol,
doi:10.1007/s00415-020-09930-0Tsao, Aday, Almarzooq, Anderson, Arora et al., Heart Disease and Stroke Statistics-2023 Update: A Report From the American Heart Association, Correction in Circulation,
doi:10.1161/CIR.0000000000001123Vrillon, Mhanna, Aveneau, Lebozec, Grosset et al., COVID-19 in adults with dementia: Clinical features and risk factors of mortality-A clinical cohort study on 125 patients, Alzheimer's Res. Ther,
doi:10.1186/s13195-021-00820-9Wang, Cui, Leng, Wang, Peng, Cognitive Impairment in the Post-Acute Phases of COVID-19 and Mechanisms: An Introduction and Narrative Review, J. Alzheimer's Dis. Rep,
doi:10.3233/ADR-230172Wang, Iwanami, Min, Tsukuda, Nakaoka et al., Deficiency of angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 causes deterioration of cognitive function, NPJ Aging Mech. Dis,
doi:10.1038/npjamd.2016.24Wang, Kream, Stefano, Long-Term Respiratory and Neurological Sequelae of COVID-19, Med. Sci. Monit,
doi:10.12659/MSM.928996Wang, Qin, Zhang, Chen, Possible immunity, inflammation, and oxidative stress mechanisms of Alzheimer's disease in COVID-19 patients, Clin. Neurol. Neurosurg,
doi:10.1016/j.clineuro.2020.106414Wang, Yao, Ma, Ping, Fan et al., A single-cell transcriptomic landscape of the lungs of patients with COVID-19, Nat. Cell Biol,
doi:10.1038/s41556-021-00796-6Wang, Yuan, Pavel, Jablonski, Jablonski et al., The role of high cholesterol in age-related COVID19 lethality, bioRxiv,
doi:10.1101/2020.05.09.086249Weatherley, Araujo, Dando, Jenner, Could Mathematics be the Key to Unlocking the Mysteries of Multiple Sclerosis?, Bull. Math. Biol,
doi:10.1007/s11538-023-01181-0Who, WHO Coronavirus (COVID-19) Dashboard
Winblad, Amouyel, Andrieu, Ballard, Brayne et al., Defeating Alzheimer's disease and other dementias: A priority for European science and society, Lancet Neurol,
doi:10.1016/S1474-4422(16)00062-4Wouk, Rechenchoski, Rodrigues, Ribelato, Faccin-Galhardi, Viral infections and their relationship to neurological disorders, Arch. Virol,
doi:10.1007/s00705-021-04959-6Yeo, Siew, Gulam, Tye, Aw et al., COVID-19 infection after SARS-CoV-2 mRNA vaccination in Multiple Sclerosis, AQP4-antibody NMOSD and MOGAD patients during the Omicron subvariant BA.1/2 wave in Singapore, J. Neurol,
doi:10.1007/s00415-023-11692-4Zafar, Al-Khamis, Al-Bakr, Alsulaiman, Msmar, Risk factors and subtypes of acute ischemic stroke. A study at King Fahd Hospital of the University, Neurosciences,
doi:10.17712/nsj.2016.3.20150731Zanza, Romenskaya, Manetti, Franceschi, La Russa et al., Cytokine Storm in COVID-19: Immunopathogenesis and Therapy, Medicina,
doi:10.3390/medicina58020144Zhang, Tian, Wang, Ma, Tan et al., The Epidemiology of Alzheimer's Disease Modifiable Risk Factors and Prevention, J. Prev. Alzheimer's Dis,
doi:10.14283/jpad.2021.15Zhang, Xiao, Zhang, Xia, Cao et al., Coagulopathy and Antiphospholipid Antibodies in Patients with Covid-19, N. Engl. J. Med,
doi:10.1056/NEJMc2007575Zhang, Zhang, Wang, Chen, Zhao et al., COVID-19 and ischemic stroke: Mechanisms of hypercoagulability (Review), Int. J. Mol. Med,
doi:10.3892/ijmm.2021.4854Zhao, Li, Lukiw, Ubiquity of the SARS-CoV-2 receptor ACE2 and upregulation in limbic regions of Alzheimer's disease brain, Folia Neuropathol,
doi:10.5114/fn.2021.109495Zhao, Zhao, Oxidative stress and the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease, Oxid. Med. Cell. Longev,
doi:10.1155/2013/316523Zhou, Yang, Wang, Hu, Zhang et al., A pneumonia outbreak associated with a new coronavirus of probable bat origin, Erratum in Nature,
doi:10.1038/s41586-020-2012-7Zou, Liu, Watanabe, Hiraga, Liu et al., Aβ43 is the earliest-depositing Aβ species in APP transgenic mouse brain and is converted to Aβ41 by two active domains of ACE, Am. J. Pathol,
doi:10.1016/j.ajpath.2013.01.053Zubair, Mcalpine, Gardin, Farhadian, Kuruvilla et al., Neuropathogenesis and Neurologic Manifestations of the Coronaviruses in the Age of Coronavirus Disease 2019: A Review, JAMA Neurol,
doi:10.1001/jamaneurol.2020.2065{ 'indexed': {'date-parts': [[2024, 8, 15]], 'date-time': '2024-08-15T00:18:02Z', 'timestamp': 1723681082210},
'reference-count': 146,
'publisher': 'MDPI AG',
'issue': '16',
'license': [ { 'start': { 'date-parts': [[2024, 8, 9]],
'date-time': '2024-08-09T00:00:00Z',
'timestamp': 1723161600000},
'content-version': 'vor',
'delay-in-days': 0,
'URL': 'https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/'}],
'funder': [{'name': 'Medical University of Bialystok, Poland', 'award': ['B.SUB.23.378']}],
'content-domain': {'domain': [], 'crossmark-restriction': False},
'abstract': '<jats:p>In 2024, over 775 million cases of COVID-19 were recorded, including approximately 7 '
'million deaths, indicating its widespread and dangerous nature. The disease is caused by the '
'SARS-CoV-2 virus, which can manifest a wide spectrum of symptoms, from mild infection to '
'respiratory failure and even death. Neurological symptoms, such as headaches, confusion, and '
'impaired consciousness, have also been reported in some COVID-19 patients. These observations '
'suggest the potential of SARS-CoV-2 to invade the central nervous system and induce '
'neuroinflammation during infection. This review specifically explores the relationship '
'between SARS-CoV-2 infection and selected neurological diseases such as multiple sclerosis '
'(MS), ischemic stroke (IS), and Alzheimer’s disease (AD). It has been observed that the '
'SARS-CoV-2 virus increases the production of cytokines whose action can cause the destruction '
'of the myelin sheaths of nerve cells. Subsequently, the body may synthesize autoantibodies '
'that attack nerve cells, resulting in damage to the brain’s anatomical elements, potentially '
'contributing to the onset of multiple sclerosis. Additionally, SARS-CoV-2 exacerbates '
'inflammation, worsening the clinical condition in individuals already suffering from MS. '
'Moreover, the secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines may lead to an escalation in blood clot '
'formation, which can result in thrombosis, obstructing blood flow to the brain and '
'precipitating an ischemic stroke. AD is characterized by intense inflammation and heightened '
'oxidative stress, both of which are exacerbated during SARS-CoV-2 infection. It has been '
'observed that the SARS-CoV-2 demonstrates enhanced cell entry in the presence of both the '
'ACE2 receptor, which is already elevated in AD and the ApoE ε4 allele. Consequently, the '
'condition worsens and progresses more rapidly, increasing the mortality rate among AD '
'patients. The above information underscores the numerous connections between SARS-CoV-2 '
'infection and neurological diseases.</jats:p>',
'DOI': '10.3390/ijms25168715',
'type': 'journal-article',
'created': {'date-parts': [[2024, 8, 14]], 'date-time': '2024-08-14T07:46:36Z', 'timestamp': 1723621596000},
'page': '8715',
'source': 'Crossref',
'is-referenced-by-count': 0,
'title': 'The Influence of SARS-CoV-2 Infection on the Development of Selected Neurological Diseases',
'prefix': '10.3390',
'volume': '25',
'author': [ { 'given': 'Klaudia',
'family': 'Kryńska',
'sequence': 'first',
'affiliation': [ { 'name': 'Department of Biochemical Diagnostics, Medical University of '
'Bialystok, Waszyngtona 15A St., 15-269 Bialystok, Poland'}]},
{ 'given': 'Katarzyna',
'family': 'Kuliś',
'sequence': 'additional',
'affiliation': [ { 'name': 'Department of Biochemical Diagnostics, Medical University of '
'Bialystok, Waszyngtona 15A St., 15-269 Bialystok, Poland'}]},
{ 'given': 'Wiktoria',
'family': 'Mazurek',
'sequence': 'additional',
'affiliation': [ { 'name': 'Department of Biochemical Diagnostics, Medical University of '
'Bialystok, Waszyngtona 15A St., 15-269 Bialystok, Poland'}]},
{ 'ORCID': 'http://orcid.org/0000-0003-4854-7155',
'authenticated-orcid': False,
'given': 'Monika',
'family': 'Gudowska-Sawczuk',
'sequence': 'additional',
'affiliation': [ { 'name': 'Department of Biochemical Diagnostics, Medical University of '
'Bialystok, Waszyngtona 15A St., 15-269 Bialystok, Poland'}]},
{ 'ORCID': 'http://orcid.org/0000-0002-5179-0722',
'authenticated-orcid': False,
'given': 'Monika',
'family': 'Zajkowska',
'sequence': 'additional',
'affiliation': [ { 'name': 'Department of Neurodegeneration Diagnostics, Medical University '
'of Bialystok, Waszyngtona 15A St., 15-269 Bialystok, Poland'}]},
{ 'ORCID': 'http://orcid.org/0000-0002-4075-8479',
'authenticated-orcid': False,
'given': 'Barbara',
'family': 'Mroczko',
'sequence': 'additional',
'affiliation': [ { 'name': 'Department of Biochemical Diagnostics, Medical University of '
'Bialystok, Waszyngtona 15A St., 15-269 Bialystok, Poland'},
{ 'name': 'Department of Neurodegeneration Diagnostics, Medical University '
'of Bialystok, Waszyngtona 15A St., 15-269 Bialystok, Poland'}]}],
'member': '1968',
'published-online': {'date-parts': [[2024, 8, 9]]},
'reference': [ { 'key': 'ref_1',
'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref',
'first-page': '181',
'DOI': '10.1038/s41579-018-0118-9',
'article-title': 'Origin and evolution of pathogenic coronaviruses',
'volume': '17',
'author': 'Cui',
'year': '2019',
'journal-title': 'Nat. Rev. Microbiol.'},
{ 'key': 'ref_2',
'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref',
'first-page': '450',
'DOI': '10.1038/s41591-020-0820-9',
'article-title': 'The proximal origin of SARS-CoV-2',
'volume': '26',
'author': 'Andersen',
'year': '2020',
'journal-title': 'Nat. Med.'},
{ 'key': 'ref_3',
'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref',
'first-page': '110',
'DOI': '10.1136/postgradmedj-2020-138386',
'article-title': 'SARS-CoV-2 and the pandemic of COVID-19',
'volume': '97',
'author': 'Adil',
'year': '2021',
'journal-title': 'Postgrad. Med. J.'},
{ 'key': 'ref_4',
'unstructured': 'WHO (2024, May 02). WHO Coronavirus (COVID-19) Dashboard. Available '
'online: https://covid19.who.int/.'},
{ 'key': 'ref_5',
'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref',
'first-page': '123',
'DOI': '10.1016/j.virol.2022.03.005',
'article-title': 'Genomic evolution of the Coronaviridae family',
'volume': '570',
'author': 'Zmasek',
'year': '2022',
'journal-title': 'Virology'},
{ 'key': 'ref_6',
'first-page': 'e7423',
'article-title': 'Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2): An Update',
'volume': '12',
'author': 'Pal',
'year': '2020',
'journal-title': 'Cureus'},
{ 'key': 'ref_7',
'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref',
'first-page': '2693',
'DOI': '10.1016/j.ajem.2020.08.011',
'article-title': 'COVID-19 cardiac arrest management: A review for emergency clinicians',
'volume': '38',
'author': 'Ramzy',
'year': '2020',
'journal-title': 'Am. J. Emerg. Med.'},
{ 'key': 'ref_8',
'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref',
'first-page': '754',
'DOI': '10.1080/00207454.2021.1973000',
'article-title': 'Neurological manifestations of COVID-19: A systematic review and '
'detailed comprehension',
'volume': '133',
'author': 'Ousseiran',
'year': '2023',
'journal-title': 'Int. J. Neurosci.'},
{ 'key': 'ref_9',
'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref',
'first-page': '135567',
'DOI': '10.1016/j.neulet.2020.135567',
'article-title': 'Neurological issues in children with COVID-19',
'volume': '19',
'author': 'Lin',
'year': '2021',
'journal-title': 'Neurosci. Lett.'},
{ 'key': 'ref_10',
'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref',
'first-page': '323',
'DOI': '10.1016/j.tcm.2022.04.004',
'article-title': 'COVID-19 and the brain',
'volume': '32',
'author': 'Hingorani',
'year': '2022',
'journal-title': 'Trends Cardiovasc. Med.'},
{ 'key': 'ref_11',
'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref',
'first-page': '392',
'DOI': '10.1097/WCO.0000000000001049',
'article-title': 'Mechanisms of coronavirus infectious disease 2019-related neurologic '
'diseases',
'volume': '35',
'author': 'Klein',
'year': '2022',
'journal-title': 'Curr. Opin. Neurol.'},
{ 'key': 'ref_12',
'first-page': 'e60079',
'article-title': 'A Comprehensive Review on Navigating the Neurological Landscape of '
'COVID-19: Insights into Etiopathogenesis and Clinical Management',
'volume': '16',
'author': 'Chavhan',
'year': '2024',
'journal-title': 'Cureus'},
{ 'key': 'ref_13',
'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref',
'first-page': '647',
'DOI': '10.3233/ADR-230172',
'article-title': 'Cognitive Impairment in the Post-Acute Phases of COVID-19 and '
'Mechanisms: An Introduction and Narrative Review',
'volume': '8',
'author': 'Wang',
'year': '2024',
'journal-title': 'J. Alzheimer’s Dis. Rep.'},
{ 'key': 'ref_14',
'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref',
'unstructured': 'Bazylewicz, M., Gudowska-Sawczuk, M., Mroczko, B., Kochanowicz, J., and '
'Kułakowska, A. (2023). COVID-19: The Course, Vaccination and Immune '
'Response in People with Multiple Sclerosis: Systematic Review. Int. J. '
'Mol. Sci., 24.',
'DOI': '10.3390/ijms24119231'},
{ 'key': 'ref_15',
'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref',
'first-page': 's53',
'DOI': '10.7861/clinmedicine.16-6-s53',
'article-title': 'Multiple sclerosis, a treatable disease',
'volume': '16',
'author': 'Doshi',
'year': '2016',
'journal-title': 'Clin. Med.'},
{ 'key': 'ref_16',
'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref',
'first-page': '345',
'DOI': '10.1097/WCO.0000000000000319',
'article-title': 'Multiple sclerosis: Genetics, biomarkers, treatments',
'volume': '29',
'author': 'Axisa',
'year': '2016',
'journal-title': 'Curr. Opin. Neurol.'},
{ 'key': 'ref_17',
'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref',
'first-page': '711',
'DOI': '10.1007/s00281-019-00765-0',
'article-title': 'Resolution of inflammation during multiple sclerosis',
'volume': '41',
'author': 'Ruiz',
'year': '2019',
'journal-title': 'Semin. Immunopathol.'},
{ 'key': 'ref_18',
'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref',
'first-page': '723',
'DOI': '10.1016/B978-0-444-64076-5.00046-6',
'article-title': 'Multiple sclerosis',
'volume': '148',
'author': 'Cotsapas',
'year': '2018',
'journal-title': 'Handb. Clin. Neurol.'},
{ 'key': 'ref_19',
'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref',
'first-page': '9',
'DOI': '10.1111/ene.15593',
'article-title': 'Diagnosis and treatment of progressive multiple sclerosis: A position '
'paper',
'volume': '30',
'author': 'Pozzilli',
'year': '2023',
'journal-title': 'Eur. J. Neurol.'},
{ 'key': 'ref_20',
'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref',
'first-page': 'e00362',
'DOI': '10.1002/brb3.362',
'article-title': 'An update on immunopathogenesis, diagnosis, and treatment of multiple '
'sclerosis',
'volume': '5',
'author': 'Garg',
'year': '2015',
'journal-title': 'Brain Behav.'},
{ 'key': 'ref_21',
'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref',
'first-page': '4831647',
'DOI': '10.1155/2018/4831647',
'article-title': 'Neuropsychological Features of Multiple Sclerosis: Impact and '
'Rehabilitation',
'volume': '2018',
'author': 'Messinis',
'year': '2018',
'journal-title': 'Behav. Neurol.'},
{ 'key': 'ref_22',
'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref',
'first-page': 'a028928',
'DOI': '10.1101/cshperspect.a028928',
'article-title': 'Clinical Course of Multiple Sclerosis',
'volume': '8',
'author': 'Klineova',
'year': '2018',
'journal-title': 'Cold Spring Harb. Perspect. Med.'},
{ 'key': 'ref_23',
'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref',
'first-page': '2917',
'DOI': '10.1007/s00415-020-09930-0',
'article-title': 'Diagnosis and management of multiple sclerosis: MRI in clinical '
'practice',
'volume': '267',
'author': 'Tomassini',
'year': '2020',
'journal-title': 'J. Neurol.'},
{ 'key': 'ref_24',
'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref',
'unstructured': 'Gudowska-Sawczuk, M., and Mroczko, B. (2019). Free Light Chains as a '
'Novel Diagnostic Biomarker of Immune System Abnormalities in Multiple '
'Sclerosis and HIV Infection. Biomed. Res. Int., 2019.',
'DOI': '10.1155/2019/8382132'},
{ 'key': 'ref_25',
'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref',
'unstructured': 'Weatherley, G., Araujo, R.P., Dando, S.J., and Jenner, A.L. (2023). '
'Could Mathematics be the Key to Unlocking the Mysteries of Multiple '
'Sclerosis?. Bull. Math. Biol., 85.',
'DOI': '10.1007/s11538-023-01181-0'},
{ 'key': 'ref_26',
'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref',
'unstructured': 'Houen, G., Trier, N.H., and Frederiksen, J.L. (2020). Epstein-Barr Virus '
'and Multiple Sclerosis. Front. Immunol., 11.',
'DOI': '10.3389/fimmu.2020.587078'},
{ 'key': 'ref_27',
'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref',
'unstructured': 'Rousseau, B.A., and Bhaduri-McIntosh, S. (2023). Inflammation and '
'Epstein-Barr Virus at the Crossroads of Multiple Sclerosis and '
'Post-Acute Sequelae of COVID-19 Infection. Viruses, 15.',
'DOI': '10.3390/v15040949'},
{ 'key': 'ref_28',
'first-page': 'e928996',
'article-title': 'Long-Term Respiratory and Neurological Sequelae of COVID-19',
'volume': '26',
'author': 'Wang',
'year': '2020',
'journal-title': 'Med. Sci. Monit.'},
{ 'key': 'ref_29',
'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref',
'first-page': '1802',
'DOI': '10.1007/s42399-020-00504-9',
'article-title': 'COVID-19 and Multiple Sclerosis: Predisposition and Precautions in '
'Treatment SN',
'volume': '2',
'author': 'Sadeghmousavi',
'year': '2020',
'journal-title': 'Compr. Clin. Med.'},
{ 'key': 'ref_30',
'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref',
'first-page': '2817',
'DOI': '10.1007/s00415-023-11692-4',
'article-title': 'COVID-19 infection after SARS-CoV-2 mRNA vaccination in Multiple '
'Sclerosis, AQP4-antibody NMOSD and MOGAD patients during the Omicron '
'subvariant BA.1/2 wave in Singapore',
'volume': '270',
'author': 'Yeo',
'year': '2023',
'journal-title': 'J. Neurol.'},
{ 'key': 'ref_31',
'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref',
'unstructured': 'Satheesh, N.J., Salloum-Asfar, S., and Abdulla, S.A. (2021). The '
'Potential Role of COVID-19 in the Pathogenesis of Multiple Sclerosis—A '
'Preliminary Report. Viruses, 13.',
'DOI': '10.3390/v13102091'},
{ 'key': 'ref_32',
'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref',
'first-page': '1569',
'DOI': '10.1007/s10787-022-01011-0',
'article-title': 'Melatonin and multiple sclerosis: Antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and '
'immunomodulator mechanism of action',
'volume': '30',
'author': 'Escribano',
'year': '2022',
'journal-title': 'Inflammopharmacology'},
{ 'key': 'ref_33',
'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref',
'first-page': '703',
'DOI': '10.1515/revneuro-2021-0148',
'article-title': 'Coronaviruses and their relationship with multiple sclerosis: Is the '
'prevalence of multiple sclerosis going to increase after the Covid-19 '
'pandemia?',
'volume': '33',
'author': 'Lima',
'year': '2022',
'journal-title': 'Rev. Neurosci.'},
{ 'key': 'ref_34',
'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref',
'first-page': '1316',
'DOI': '10.1007/s00415-021-10744-x',
'article-title': 'Anti-CD20 therapies for multiple sclerosis: Current status and future '
'perspectives',
'volume': '269',
'author': 'Margoni',
'year': '2022',
'journal-title': 'J. Neurol.'},
{ 'key': 'ref_35',
'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref',
'unstructured': 'Bellucci, G., Rinaldi, V., Buscarinu, M.C., Reniè, R., Bigi, R., '
'Pellicciari, G., Morena, E., Romano, C., Marrone, A., and Mechelli, R. '
'(2021). Multiple Sclerosis and SARS-CoV-2: Has the Interplay Started?. '
'Front. Immunol., 12.',
'DOI': '10.3389/fimmu.2021.755333'},
{ 'key': 'ref_36',
'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref',
'unstructured': 'Fernandes de Souza, W.D., Fonseca, D.M.D., and Sartori, A. (2023). '
'COVID-19 and Multiple Sclerosis: A Complex Relationship Possibly '
'Aggravated by Low Vitamin D Levels. Cells, 12.',
'DOI': '10.3390/cells12050684'},
{ 'key': 'ref_37',
'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref',
'first-page': '3728',
'DOI': '10.1111/ene.15554',
'article-title': 'Signs and symptoms of COVID-19 in patients with multiple sclerosis',
'volume': '29',
'author': 'Schiavetti',
'year': '2022',
'journal-title': 'Eur. J. Neurol.'},
{ 'key': 'ref_38',
'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref',
'first-page': '103371',
'DOI': '10.1016/j.msard.2021.103371',
'article-title': 'COVID-19 outcomes in persons with multiple sclerosis treated with '
'rituximab',
'volume': '57',
'author': 'Iyer',
'year': '2022',
'journal-title': 'Mult. Scler. Relat. Disord.'},
{ 'key': 'ref_39',
'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref',
'unstructured': 'Motolese, F., Rossi, M., Albergo, G., Stelitano, D., Villanova, M., Di '
'Lazzaro, V., and Capone, F. (2020). The Psychological Impact of COVID-19 '
'Pandemic on People with Multiple Sclerosis. Front. Neurol., 11.',
'DOI': '10.3389/fneur.2020.580507'},
{ 'key': 'ref_40',
'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref',
'first-page': '2064',
'DOI': '10.1161/STR.0b013e318296aeca',
'article-title': 'An updated definition of stroke for the 21st century: A statement for '
'healthcare professionals from the American Heart Association/American '
'Stroke Association',
'volume': '44',
'author': 'Sacco',
'year': '2013',
'journal-title': 'Stroke'},
{ 'key': 'ref_41',
'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref',
'first-page': 'S140',
'DOI': '10.5005/jp-journals-10071-23192',
'article-title': 'Acute Ischemic Stroke: Management Approach',
'volume': '23',
'author': 'Chugh',
'year': '2019',
'journal-title': 'Indian J. Crit. Care Med.'},
{ 'key': 'ref_42',
'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref',
'first-page': '2095',
'DOI': '10.1016/S0140-6736(12)61728-0',
'article-title': 'Global and regional mortality from 235 causes of death for 20 age '
'groups in 1990 and 2010: A systematic analysis for the Global Burden of '
'Disease Study 2010',
'volume': '380',
'author': 'Lozano',
'year': '2012',
'journal-title': 'Lancet'},
{ 'key': 'ref_43',
'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref',
'first-page': 'e93',
'DOI': '10.1161/CIR.0000000000001123',
'article-title': 'Heart Disease and Stroke Statistics-2023 Update: A Report From the '
'American Heart Association',
'volume': '147',
'author': 'Tsao',
'year': '2023',
'journal-title': 'Circulation'},
{ 'key': 'ref_44',
'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref',
'first-page': '1330',
'DOI': '10.1161/STROKEAHA.122.040073',
'article-title': 'Projected Global Trends in Ischemic Stroke Incidence, Deaths and '
'Disability-Adjusted Life Years From 2020 to 2030',
'volume': '54',
'author': 'Pu',
'year': '2023',
'journal-title': 'Stroke'},
{ 'key': 'ref_45',
'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref',
'first-page': '246',
'DOI': '10.17712/nsj.2016.3.20150731',
'article-title': 'Risk factors and subtypes of acute ischemic stroke. A study at King '
'Fahd Hospital of the University',
'volume': '21',
'author': 'Zafar',
'year': '2016',
'journal-title': 'Neurosciences'},
{ 'key': 'ref_46',
'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref',
'unstructured': 'Barthels, D., and Das, H. (2020). Current advances in ischemic stroke '
'research and therapies. Biochim. Biophys. Acta Mol. Basis Dis., 1866.',
'DOI': '10.1016/j.bbadis.2018.09.012'},
{ 'key': 'ref_47',
'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref',
'first-page': '561',
'DOI': '10.1016/j.mpmed.2020.06.002',
'article-title': 'Stroke: Causes and clinical features',
'volume': '48',
'author': 'Murphy',
'year': '2020',
'journal-title': 'Medicine'},
{ 'key': 'ref_48',
'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref',
'first-page': '439',
'DOI': '10.1161/STROKEAHA.122.040524',
'article-title': 'Risk Factors and Causes of Ischemic Stroke in 1322 Young Adults',
'volume': '54',
'author': 'Ekker',
'year': '2023',
'journal-title': 'Stroke'},
{ 'key': 'ref_49',
'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref',
'first-page': '108',
'DOI': '10.1186/s10194-017-0815-1',
'article-title': 'Hormonal contraceptives and risk of ischemic stroke in women with '
'migraine: A consensus statement from the European Headache Federation '
'(EHF) and the European Society of Contraception and Reproductive Health '
'(ESC)',
'volume': '18',
'author': 'Sacco',
'year': '2017',
'journal-title': 'J. Headache Pain'},
{ 'key': 'ref_50',
'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref',
'first-page': '761',
'DOI': '10.1016/S0140-6736(16)30506-2',
'article-title': 'Global and regional effects of potentially modifiable risk factors '
'associated with acute stroke in 32 countries (INTERSTROKE): A '
'case-control study',
'volume': '388',
'author': 'Chin',
'year': '2016',
'journal-title': 'Lancet'},
{ 'key': 'ref_51',
'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref',
'first-page': '2611',
'DOI': '10.1056/NEJMoa041747',
'article-title': 'Risk of myocardial infarction and stroke after acute infection or '
'vaccination',
'volume': '351',
'author': 'Smeeth',
'year': '2004',
'journal-title': 'N. Engl. J. Med.'},
{ 'key': 'ref_52',
'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref',
'first-page': '681',
'DOI': '10.1038/nrneurol.2010.163',
'article-title': 'Common infections and the risk of stroke',
'volume': '6',
'author': 'Grau',
'year': '2010',
'journal-title': 'Nat. Rev. Neurol.'},
{ 'key': 'ref_53',
'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref',
'first-page': '1885',
'DOI': '10.1161/STROKEAHA.120.030630',
'article-title': 'Acute Viral Illnesses and Ischemic Stroke: Pathophysiological '
'Considerations in the Era of the COVID-19 Pandemic',
'volume': '52',
'author': 'Bahouth',
'year': '2021',
'journal-title': 'Stroke'},
{ 'key': 'ref_54',
'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref',
'first-page': '1923',
'DOI': '10.1161/01.STR.0000226901.34927.10',
'article-title': 'Inflammation and atherosclerosis: Novel insights into plaque formation '
'and destabilization',
'volume': '37',
'author': 'Stoll',
'year': '2006',
'journal-title': 'Stroke'},
{ 'key': 'ref_55',
'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref',
'first-page': '1680',
'DOI': '10.1002/jmv.23354',
'article-title': 'Review: Viral infections and mechanisms of thrombosis and bleeding',
'volume': '84',
'author': 'Goeijenbier',
'year': '2012',
'journal-title': 'J. Med. Virol.'},
{ 'key': 'ref_56',
'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref',
'first-page': '2518',
'DOI': '10.1161/01.STR.0000089015.51603.CC',
'article-title': 'Inflammation and infections as risk factors for ischemic stroke',
'volume': '34',
'author': 'Lindsberg',
'year': '2003',
'journal-title': 'Stroke'},
{ 'key': 'ref_57',
'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref',
'first-page': '8',
'DOI': '10.1016/j.jocn.2020.05.017',
'article-title': 'Neurological manifestations and complications of COVID-19: A literature '
'review',
'volume': '77',
'author': 'Ahmad',
'year': '2020',
'journal-title': 'J. Clin. Neurosci.'},
{ 'key': 'ref_58',
'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref',
'first-page': '1208',
'DOI': '10.1007/s43440-022-00424-6',
'article-title': 'Neurological consequences of COVID-19',
'volume': '74',
'author': 'Brola',
'year': '2022',
'journal-title': 'Pharmacol. Rep.'},
{ 'key': 'ref_59',
'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref',
'first-page': '135564',
'DOI': '10.1016/j.neulet.2020.135564',
'article-title': 'Stroke in patients with COVID-19: Clinical and neuroimaging '
'characteristics',
'volume': '743',
'author': 'Vogrig',
'year': '2021',
'journal-title': 'Neurosci. Lett.'},
{ 'key': 'ref_60',
'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref',
'first-page': '587',
'DOI': '10.1007/s11239-020-02228-y',
'article-title': 'COVID-19 and ischemic stroke: A systematic review and meta-summary of '
'the literature',
'volume': '50',
'author': 'Tan',
'year': '2020',
'journal-title': 'J. Thromb. Thrombolysis'},
{ 'key': 'ref_61',
'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref',
'first-page': '279',
'DOI': '10.1136/svn-2020-000431',
'article-title': 'Acute cerebrovascular disease following COVID-19: A single center, '
'retrospective, observational study',
'volume': '5',
'author': 'Li',
'year': '2020',
'journal-title': 'Stroke Vasc. Neurol.'},
{ 'key': 'ref_62',
'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref',
'first-page': '1366',
'DOI': '10.1001/jamaneurol.2020.2730',
'article-title': 'Risk of Ischemic Stroke in Patients with Coronavirus Disease 2019 '
'(COVID-19) vs. Patients with Influenza',
'volume': '77',
'author': 'Merkler',
'year': '2020',
'journal-title': 'JAMA Neurol.'},
{ 'key': 'ref_63',
'first-page': '11',
'article-title': 'The origin, transmission and clinical therapies on coronavirus disease '
'2019 (COVID-19) outbreak—An update on the status',
'volume': '7',
'author': 'Guo',
'year': '2020',
'journal-title': 'Mil. Med. Res.'},
{ 'key': 'ref_64',
'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref',
'first-page': '631',
'DOI': '10.1002/path.1570',
'article-title': 'Tissue distribution of ACE2 protein, the functional receptor for SARS '
'coronavirus. A first step in understanding SARS pathogenesis',
'volume': '203',
'author': 'Hamming',
'year': '2004',
'journal-title': 'J. Pathol.'},
{ 'key': 'ref_65',
'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref',
'unstructured': 'Bartas, M., Volná, A., A Beaudoin, C., Poulsen, E.T., Červeň, J., '
'Brázda, V., Špunda, V., Blundell, T.L., and Pečinka, P. (2022). Unheeded '
'SARS-CoV-2 proteins? A deep look into negative-sense RNA. Brief '
'Bioinform., 23.',
'DOI': '10.1093/bib/bbac045'},
{ 'key': 'ref_66',
'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref',
'first-page': '811',
'DOI': '10.1001/jamacardio.2020.1017',
'article-title': 'Cardiovascular Implications of Fatal Outcomes of Patients with '
'Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19)',
'volume': '5',
'author': 'Guo',
'year': '2020',
'journal-title': 'JAMA Cardiol.'},
{ 'key': 'ref_67',
'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref',
'first-page': '176',
'DOI': '10.1080/00207454.2021.1897588',
'article-title': 'The effects of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 '
'(SARS-CoV-2) on ischemic stroke and the possible underlying mechanisms',
'volume': '133',
'author': 'Song',
'year': '2023',
'journal-title': 'Int. J. Neurosci.'},
{ 'key': 'ref_68',
'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref',
'first-page': '1271',
'DOI': '10.4081/cp.2020.1271',
'article-title': 'COVID-19: Hemoglobin, iron, and hypoxia beyond inflammation. A '
'narrative review',
'volume': '10',
'author': 'Cavezzi',
'year': '2020',
'journal-title': 'Clin. Pract.'},
{ 'key': 'ref_69',
'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref',
'first-page': '108661',
'DOI': '10.1016/j.steroids.2020.108661',
'article-title': 'Hepcidin, an overview of biochemical and clinical properties',
'volume': '160',
'author': 'Rauf',
'year': '2020',
'journal-title': 'Steroids'},
{ 'key': 'ref_70',
'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref',
'first-page': '4763',
'DOI': '10.1073/pnas.1620458114',
'article-title': 'Activation of NLRP3 inflammasome complex potentiates venous thrombosis '
'in response to hypoxia',
'volume': '114',
'author': 'Gupta',
'year': '2017',
'journal-title': 'Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA'},
{ 'key': 'ref_71',
'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref',
'first-page': 'e46',
'DOI': '10.1016/S2213-2600(20)30216-2',
'article-title': 'COVID-19 cytokine storm: The interplay between inflammation and '
'coagulation',
'volume': '8',
'author': 'Jose',
'year': '2020',
'journal-title': 'Lancet Respir. Med.'},
{ 'key': 'ref_72',
'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref',
'first-page': '21',
'DOI': '10.3892/ijmm.2021.4854',
'article-title': 'COVID-19 and ischemic stroke: Mechanisms of hypercoagulability (Review)',
'volume': '47',
'author': 'Zhang',
'year': '2021',
'journal-title': 'Int. J. Mol. Med.'},
{ 'key': 'ref_73',
'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref',
'unstructured': 'Ragab, D., Salah Eldin, H., Taeimah, M., Khattab, R., and Salem, R. '
'(2020). The COVID-19 Cytokine Storm; What We Know So Far. Front. '
'Immunol., 11.',
'DOI': '10.3389/fimmu.2020.01446'},
{ 'key': 'ref_74',
'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref',
'unstructured': 'Farooqui, A.A., Farooqui, T., Sun, G.Y., Lin, T.N., Teh, D.B.L., and '
'Ong, W.Y. (2023). COVID-19, Blood Lipid Changes, and Thrombosis. '
'Biomedicines, 11.',
'DOI': '10.3390/biomedicines11041181'},
{ 'key': 'ref_75',
'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref',
'first-page': '44',
'DOI': '10.1016/j.cytogfr.2021.11.001',
'article-title': 'SARS-CoV-2 infection and oxidative stress: Pathophysiological insight '
'into thrombosis and therapeutic opportunities',
'volume': '63',
'author': 'Alam',
'year': '2022',
'journal-title': 'Cytokine Growth Factor Rev.'},
{ 'key': 'ref_76',
'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref',
'unstructured': 'Gain, C., Song, S., Angtuaco, T., Satta, S., and Kelesidis, T. (2023). '
'The role of oxidative stress in the pathogenesis of infections with '
'coronaviruses. Front. Microbiol., 13.',
'DOI': '10.3389/fmicb.2022.1111930'},
{ 'key': 'ref_77',
'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref',
'first-page': '1593',
'DOI': '10.2174/1389450123666220826162900',
'article-title': 'Fibrinogen, Fibrin, and Fibrin Degradation Products in COVID-19',
'volume': '23',
'author': 'Kangro',
'year': '2022',
'journal-title': 'Curr. Drug Targets'},
{ 'key': 'ref_78',
'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref',
'first-page': '370',
'DOI': '10.1016/j.ancard.2020.09.027',
'article-title': 'COVID-19 and venous thromboembolic disease (COVID-19 and venous '
'thromboembolism)',
'volume': '69',
'author': 'Trimaille',
'year': '2020',
'journal-title': 'Ann. Cardiol. Angeiol.'},
{ 'key': 'ref_79',
'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref',
'first-page': '100012',
'DOI': '10.1016/j.clinsp.2022.100012',
'article-title': 'Ischemic stroke in 455 COVID-19 patients',
'volume': '77',
'author': 'Finsterer',
'year': '2022',
'journal-title': 'Clinics'},
{ 'key': 'ref_80',
'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref',
'unstructured': 'Capozzi, A., Riitano, G., Recalchi, S., Manganelli, V., Longo, A., '
'Falcou, A., De Michele, M., Garofalo, T., Pulcinelli, F.M., and Sorice, '
'M. (2023). Antiphospholipid antibodies in patients with stroke during '
'COVID-19: A role in the signaling pathway leading to platelet '
'activation. Front. Immunol., 14.',
'DOI': '10.3389/fimmu.2023.1129201'},
{ 'key': 'ref_81',
'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref',
'first-page': 'e38',
'DOI': '10.1056/NEJMc2007575',
'article-title': 'Coagulopathy and Antiphospholipid Antibodies in Patients with Covid-19',
'volume': '382',
'author': 'Zhang',
'year': '2020',
'journal-title': 'N. Engl. J. Med.'},
{ 'key': 'ref_82',
'first-page': '313',
'article-title': 'The Epidemiology of Alzheimer’s Disease Modifiable Risk Factors and '
'Prevention',
'volume': '8',
'author': 'Zhang',
'year': '2021',
'journal-title': 'J. Prev. Alzheimer’s Dis.'},
{ 'key': 'ref_83',
'unstructured': 'Patterson, C. (2018). World Alzheimer Report 2018, Alzheimer’s Disease '
'International.'},
{ 'key': 'ref_84',
'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref',
'first-page': '88',
'DOI': '10.1016/S1474-4422(18)30403-4',
'article-title': 'Global, regional, and national burden of Alzheimer’s disease and other '
'dementias, 1990–2016: A systematic analysis for the Global Burden of '
'Disease Study 2016',
'volume': '18',
'author': 'Nichols',
'year': '2019',
'journal-title': 'Lancet Neurol.'},
{ 'key': 'ref_85',
'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref',
'first-page': '455',
'DOI': '10.1016/S1474-4422(16)00062-4',
'article-title': 'Defeating Alzheimer’s disease and other dementias: A priority for '
'European science and society',
'volume': '15',
'author': 'Winblad',
'year': '2016',
'journal-title': 'Lancet Neurol.'},
{ 'key': 'ref_86',
'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref',
'unstructured': 'Lotz, S.K., Blackhurst, B.M., Reagin, K.L., and Funk, K.E. (2021). '
'Microbial Infections Are a Risk Factor for Neurodegenerative Diseases. '
'Front. Cell Neurosci., 15.',
'DOI': '10.3389/fncel.2021.691136'},
{ 'key': 'ref_87',
'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref',
'first-page': '733',
'DOI': '10.1007/s00705-021-04959-6',
'article-title': 'Viral infections and their relationship to neurological disorders',
'volume': '166',
'author': 'Wouk',
'year': '2021',
'journal-title': 'Arch. Virol.'},
{ 'key': 'ref_88',
'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref',
'first-page': '1086',
'DOI': '10.1016/j.neuron.2022.12.029',
'article-title': 'Virus exposure and neurodegenerative disease risk across national '
'biobanks',
'volume': '111',
'author': 'Levine',
'year': '2023',
'journal-title': 'Neuron'},
{ 'key': 'ref_89',
'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref',
'first-page': '73',
'DOI': '10.31083/j.jin2102073',
'article-title': 'Infectious agents and Alzheimer’s disease',
'volume': '21',
'author': 'Piekut',
'year': '2022',
'journal-title': 'J. Integr. Neurosci.'},
{ 'key': 'ref_90',
'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref',
'first-page': '240',
'DOI': '10.1080/1040841X.2021.1876630',
'article-title': 'The role of microbial infection in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer’s '
'disease and the opportunity for protection by anti-microbial peptides',
'volume': '47',
'author': 'Li',
'year': '2021',
'journal-title': 'Crit. Rev. Microbiol.'},
{ 'key': 'ref_91',
'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref',
'first-page': '15',
'DOI': '10.1186/s40035-021-00237-2',
'article-title': 'COVID-19 and Alzheimer’s disease: How one crisis worsens the other',
'volume': '10',
'author': 'Xia',
'year': '2021',
'journal-title': 'Transl. Neurodegener.'},
{ 'key': 'ref_92',
'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref',
'first-page': '270',
'DOI': '10.1038/s41586-020-2012-7',
'article-title': 'A pneumonia outbreak associated with a new coronavirus of probable bat '
'origin',
'volume': '579',
'author': 'Zhou',
'year': '2020',
'journal-title': 'Nature'},
{ 'key': 'ref_93',
'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref',
'first-page': '1018',
'DOI': '10.1001/jamaneurol.2020.2065',
'article-title': 'Neuropathogenesis and Neurologic Manifestations of the Coronaviruses in '
'the Age of Coronavirus Disease 2019: A Review',
'volume': '77',
'author': 'Zubair',
'year': '2020',
'journal-title': 'JAMA Neurol.'},
{ 'key': 'ref_94',
'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref',
'first-page': 'e89',
'DOI': '10.1093/ibd/izaa131',
'article-title': 'Temporal Correlation Between Neurological and Gastrointestinal Symptoms '
'of SARS-CoV-2',
'volume': '26',
'year': '2020',
'journal-title': 'Inflamm. Bowel Dis.'},
{ 'key': 'ref_95',
'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref',
'first-page': '283',
'DOI': '10.1038/s41398-022-02052-3',
'article-title': 'COVID-19 and risk of neurodegenerative disorders: A Mendelian '
'randomization study',
'volume': '12',
'author': 'Li',
'year': '2022',
'journal-title': 'Transl. Psychiatry'},
{ 'key': 'ref_96',
'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref',
'first-page': '1314',
'DOI': '10.1038/s41556-021-00796-6',
'article-title': 'A single-cell transcriptomic landscape of the lungs of patients with '
'COVID-19',
'volume': '23',
'author': 'Wang',
'year': '2021',
'journal-title': 'Nat. Cell Biol.'},
{ 'key': 'ref_97',
'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref',
'first-page': 'e28107',
'DOI': '10.1002/jmv.28107',
'article-title': 'Causal effect of COVID-19 on Alzheimer’s disease: A Mendelian '
'randomization study',
'volume': '95',
'author': 'Baranova',
'year': '2023',
'journal-title': 'J. Med. Virol.'},
{ 'key': 'ref_98',
'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref',
'first-page': '2224',
'DOI': '10.1093/gerona/glaa183',
'article-title': 'Preexisting Comorbidities Predicting Severe COVID-19 in Older Adults in '
'the UK Biobank Community Cohort',
'volume': '75',
'author': 'Atkins',
'year': '2020',
'journal-title': 'J. Gerontol. Ser. A'},
{ 'key': 'ref_99',
'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref',
'first-page': '1367',
'DOI': '10.3233/JAD-200937',
'article-title': 'Cognitive Impairment Is a Common Comorbidity in Deceased COVID-19 '
'Patients: A Hospital-Based Retrospective Cohort Study',
'volume': '78',
'author': 'Seoane',
'year': '2020',
'journal-title': 'J. Alzheimer’s Dis.'},
{ 'key': 'ref_100',
'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref',
'unstructured': 'Park, H.Y., Song, I.A., and Oh, T.K. (2021). Dementia Risk among '
'Coronavirus Disease Survivors: A Nationwide Cohort Study in South Korea. '
'J. Pers. Med., 11.',
'DOI': '10.3390/jpm11101015'},
{ 'key': 'ref_101',
'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref',
'first-page': '679',
'DOI': '10.3233/JAD-210050',
'article-title': 'Clinical Features and Outcomes of Patients with Dementia Compared to an '
'Aging Cohort Hospitalized During the Initial New York City COVID-19 '
'Wave',
'volume': '81',
'author': 'Harb',
'year': '2021',
'journal-title': 'J. Alzheimer’s Dis.'},
{ 'key': 'ref_102',
'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref',
'first-page': '77',
'DOI': '10.1186/s13195-021-00820-9',
'article-title': 'COVID-19 in adults with dementia: Clinical features and risk factors of '
'mortality—A clinical cohort study on 125 patients',
'volume': '13',
'author': 'Vrillon',
'year': '2021',
'journal-title': 'Alzheimer’s Res. Ther.'},
{ 'key': 'ref_103',
'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref',
'first-page': '560',
'DOI': '10.1007/s12603-020-1389-1',
'article-title': 'Clinical Presentation of COVID19 in Dementia Patients',
'volume': '24',
'author': 'Bianchetti',
'year': '2020',
'journal-title': 'J. Nutr. Health Aging'},
{ 'key': 'ref_104',
'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref',
'first-page': '427',
'DOI': '10.1016/j.mcn.2005.03.012',
'article-title': 'Angiotensin-(1-7) enhances LTP in the hippocampus through the '
'G-protein-coupled receptor Mas',
'volume': '29',
'author': 'Hellner',
'year': '2005',
'journal-title': 'Mol. Cell Neurosci.'},
{ 'key': 'ref_105',
'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref',
'first-page': '113',
'DOI': '10.1016/j.nlm.2011.10.003',
'article-title': 'Angiotensin-(1-7)/Mas axis integrity is required for the expression of '
'object recognition memory',
'volume': '97',
'author': 'Lazaroni',
'year': '2012',
'journal-title': 'Neurobiol. Learn Mem.'},
{ 'key': 'ref_106',
'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref',
'first-page': '715',
'DOI': '10.1007/s00109-008-0331-5',
'article-title': 'Brain renin angiotensin in disease',
'volume': '86',
'author': 'Phillips',
'year': '2008',
'journal-title': 'J. Mol. Med.'},
{ 'key': 'ref_107',
'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref',
'first-page': '2489',
'DOI': '10.1007/s12035-015-9260-9',
'article-title': 'Angiotensin-(1-7) is Reduced and Inversely Correlates with Tau '
'Hyperphosphorylation in Animal Models of Alzheimer’s Disease',
'volume': '53',
'author': 'Jiang',
'year': '2016',
'journal-title': 'Mol. Neurobiol.'},
{ 'key': 'ref_108',
'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref',
'first-page': '1178',
'DOI': '10.1002/jnr.23404',
'article-title': 'Conversion of Aβ43 to Aβ40 by the successive action of '
'angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 and angiotensin-converting enzyme',
'volume': '92',
'author': 'Liu',
'year': '2014',
'journal-title': 'J. Neurosci. Res.'},
{ 'key': 'ref_109',
'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref',
'unstructured': 'Ding, Q., Shults, N.V., Gychka, S.G., Harris, B.T., and Suzuki, Y.J. '
'(2021). Protein Expression of Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme 2 (ACE2) is '
'Upregulated in Brains with Alzheimer’s Disease. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 22.',
'DOI': '10.3390/ijms22041687'},
{ 'key': 'ref_110',
'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref',
'first-page': '2322',
'DOI': '10.1016/j.ajpath.2013.01.053',
'article-title': 'Aβ43 is the earliest-depositing Aβ species in APP transgenic mouse '
'brain and is converted to Aβ41 by two active domains of ACE',
'volume': '182',
'author': 'Zou',
'year': '2013',
'journal-title': 'Am. J. Pathol.'},
{ 'key': 'ref_111',
'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref',
'first-page': '627',
'DOI': '10.1523/JNEUROSCI.4849-06.2007',
'article-title': 'Abeta40 inhibits amyloid deposition in vivo',
'volume': '27',
'author': 'Kim',
'year': '2007',
'journal-title': 'J. Neurosci.'},
{ 'key': 'ref_112',
'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref',
'first-page': '909',
'DOI': '10.1016/j.jmb.2007.04.014',
'article-title': 'Abeta40 protects non-toxic Abeta42 monomer from aggregation',
'volume': '369',
'author': 'Yan',
'year': '2007',
'journal-title': 'J. Mol. Biol.'},
{ 'key': 'ref_113',
'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref',
'first-page': '15514',
'DOI': '10.1021/bi991161m',
'article-title': 'Interaction between A beta(1-42) and A beta(1-40) in Alzheimer’s '
'beta-amyloid fibril formation in vitro',
'volume': '38',
'author': 'Hasegawa',
'year': '1999',
'journal-title': 'Biochemistry'},
{ 'key': 'ref_114',
'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref',
'unstructured': 'Rudnicka-Drożak, E., Drożak, P., Mizerski, G., Zaborowski, T., '
'Ślusarska, B., Nowicki, G., and Drożak, M. (2023). Links between '
'COVID-19 and Alzheimer’s Disease—What Do We Already Know?. Int. J. '
'Environ. Res. Public Health, 20.',
'DOI': '10.3390/ijerph20032146'},
{ 'key': 'ref_115',
'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref',
'first-page': '232',
'DOI': '10.5114/fn.2021.109495',
'article-title': 'Ubiquity of the SARS-CoV-2 receptor ACE2 and upregulation in limbic '
'regions of Alzheimer’s disease brain',
'volume': '59',
'author': 'Zhao',
'year': '2021',
'journal-title': 'Folia Neuropathol.'},
{ 'key': 'ref_116',
'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref',
'first-page': '16024',
'DOI': '10.1038/npjamd.2016.24',
'article-title': 'Deficiency of angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 causes deterioration of '
'cognitive function',
'volume': '2',
'author': 'Wang',
'year': '2016',
'journal-title': 'NPJ Aging Mech. Dis.'},
{ 'key': 'ref_117',
'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref',
'first-page': '84',
'DOI': '10.4103/ijpvm.IJPVM_114_20',
'article-title': 'Possible Neurological and Mental Outcomes of COVID-19 Infection: A '
'Hypothetical Role of ACE-2\\Mas\\BDNF Signaling Pathway',
'volume': '11',
'author': 'Motaghinejad',
'year': '2020',
'journal-title': 'Int. J. Prev. Med.'},
{ 'key': 'ref_118',
'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref',
'first-page': '62',
'DOI': '10.1016/j.plipres.2010.09.001',
'article-title': 'Apolipoprotein E: From lipid transport to neurobiology',
'volume': '50',
'author': 'Hauser',
'year': '2011',
'journal-title': 'Prog. Lipid Res.'},
{ 'key': 'ref_119',
'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref',
'first-page': '21',
'DOI': '10.1186/1750-1326-4-21',
'article-title': 'ApoE isoform-dependent changes in hippocampal synaptic function',
'volume': '4',
'author': 'Korwek',
'year': '2009',
'journal-title': 'Mol. Neurodegener.'},
{ 'key': 'ref_120',
'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref',
'first-page': '117',
'DOI': '10.1046/j.1471-4159.2001.00047.x',
'article-title': 'ApoE protects cortical neurones against neurotoxicity induced by the '
'non-fibrillar C-terminal domain of the amyloid-beta peptide',
'volume': '76',
'author': 'Drouet',
'year': '2001',
'journal-title': 'J. Neurochem.'},
{ 'key': 'ref_121',
'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref',
'first-page': '241',
'DOI': '10.1016/S1474-4422(10)70325-2',
'article-title': 'Apolipoprotein E in Alzheimer’s disease and other neurological '
'disorders',
'volume': '10',
'author': 'Verghese',
'year': '2011',
'journal-title': 'Lancet Neurol.'},
{ 'key': 'ref_122',
'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref',
'first-page': '2231',
'DOI': '10.1093/gerona/glaa131',
'article-title': 'APOE e4 Genotype Predicts Severe COVID-19 in the UK Biobank Community '
'Cohort',
'volume': '75',
'author': 'Kuo',
'year': '2020',
'journal-title': 'J. Gerontol. A Biol. Sci. Med. Sci.'},
{ 'key': 'ref_123',
'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref',
'unstructured': 'Wang, H., Yuan, Z., Pavel, M.A., Jablonski, S.M., Jablonski, J., Hobson, '
'R., Valente, S., Reddy, C.B., and Hansen, S.B. (2021). The role of high '
'cholesterol in age-related COVID19 lethality. bioRxiv.',
'DOI': '10.1101/2020.05.09.086249'},
{ 'key': 'ref_124',
'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref',
'first-page': '575',
'DOI': '10.1016/j.trci.2018.06.014',
'article-title': 'Inflammation as a central mechanism in Alzheimer’s disease',
'volume': '4',
'author': 'Kinney',
'year': '2018',
'journal-title': 'Alzheimer’s Dement.'},
{ 'key': 'ref_125',
'first-page': '756357',
'article-title': 'A review: Inflammatory process in Alzheimer’s disease, role of '
'cytokines',
'volume': '2012',
'year': '2012',
'journal-title': 'Sci. World J.'},
{ 'key': 'ref_126',
'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref',
'first-page': '224',
'DOI': '10.1111/psyg.12218',
'article-title': 'Serum tumour necrosis factor-α and interleukin-6 levels in Alzheimer’s '
'disease and mild cognitive impairment',
'volume': '17',
'author': 'Kim',
'year': '2017',
'journal-title': 'Psychogeriatrics'},
{ 'key': 'ref_127',
'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref',
'unstructured': 'Zanza, C., Romenskaya, T., Manetti, A.C., Franceschi, F., La Russa, R., '
'Bertozzi, G., Maiese, A., Savioli, G., Volonnino, G., and Longhitano, Y. '
'(2022). Cytokine Storm in COVID-19: Immunopathogenesis and Therapy. '
'Medicina, 58.',
'DOI': '10.3390/medicina58020144'},
{ 'key': 'ref_128',
'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref',
'unstructured': 'Reghunathan, R., Jayapal, M., Hsu, L.Y., Chng, H.H., Tai, D., Leung, '
'B.P., and Melendez, A.J. (2005). Expression profile of immune response '
'genes in patients with Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome. BMC Immunol., '
'6.',
'DOI': '10.1186/1471-2172-6-2'},
{ 'key': 'ref_129',
'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref',
'first-page': '2366',
'DOI': '10.1182/blood-2004-10-4166',
'article-title': 'Chemokine up-regulation in SARS-coronavirus-infected, monocyte-derived '
'human dendritic cells',
'volume': '106',
'author': 'Law',
'year': '2005',
'journal-title': 'Blood'},
{ 'key': 'ref_130',
'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref',
'first-page': '881',
'DOI': '10.1038/s41423-020-0485-9',
'article-title': 'The ORF3a protein of SARS-CoV-2 induces apoptosis in cells',
'volume': '17',
'author': 'Ren',
'year': '2020',
'journal-title': 'Cell Mol. Immunol.'},
{ 'key': 'ref_131',
'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref',
'first-page': '820',
'DOI': '10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2020.12.142',
'article-title': 'SARS-Cov-2 ORF3a: Mutability and function',
'volume': '170',
'author': 'Bianchi',
'year': '2021',
'journal-title': 'Int. J. Biol. Macromol.'},
{ 'key': 'ref_132',
'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref',
'first-page': '599',
'DOI': '10.1007/s00401-018-01957-y',
'article-title': 'Aggregated Tau activates NLRP3-ASC inflammasome exacerbating '
'exogenously seeded and non-exogenously seeded Tau pathology in vivo',
'volume': '137',
'author': 'Stancu',
'year': '2019',
'journal-title': 'Acta Neuropathol.'},
{ 'key': 'ref_133',
'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref',
'first-page': '674',
'DOI': '10.1038/nature11729',
'article-title': 'NLRP3 is activated in Alzheimer’s disease and contributes to pathology '
'in APP/PS1 mice',
'volume': '493',
'author': 'Heneka',
'year': '2013',
'journal-title': 'Nature'},
{ 'key': 'ref_134',
'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref',
'first-page': 'e101064',
'DOI': '10.15252/embj.2018101064',
'article-title': 'Systemic inflammation impairs microglial Aβ clearance through NLRP3 '
'inflammasome',
'volume': '38',
'author': 'Tejera',
'year': '2019',
'journal-title': 'EMBO J.'},
{ 'key': 'ref_135',
'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref',
'unstructured': 'Liang, T., Zhang, Y., Wu, S., Chen, Q., and Wang, L. (2022). The Role of '
'NLRP3 Inflammasome in Alzheimer’s Disease and Potential Therapeutic '
'Targets. Front. Pharmacol., 13.',
'DOI': '10.3389/fphar.2022.845185'},
{ 'key': 'ref_136',
'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref',
'first-page': '1463',
'DOI': '10.1007/s00702-016-1619-1',
'article-title': 'Neuroprotective effects of various doses of topiramate against '
'methylphenidate-induced oxidative stress and inflammation in isolated '
'rat amygdala: The possible role of CREB/BDNF signaling pathway',
'volume': '123',
'author': 'Motaghinejad',
'year': '2016',
'journal-title': 'J. Neural Transm.'},
{ 'key': 'ref_137',
'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref',
'first-page': '316523',
'DOI': '10.1155/2013/316523',
'article-title': 'Oxidative stress and the pathogenesis of Alzheimer’s disease',
'volume': '2013',
'author': 'Zhao',
'year': '2013',
'journal-title': 'Oxid. Med. Cell. Longev.'},
{ 'key': 'ref_138',
'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref',
'first-page': '1308',
'DOI': '10.1111/j.1471-4159.2004.02455.x',
'article-title': 'Increased plaque burden in brains of APP mutant MnSOD heterozygous '
'knockout mice',
'volume': '89',
'author': 'Li',
'year': '2004',
'journal-title': 'J. Neurochem.'},
{ 'key': 'ref_139',
'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref',
'first-page': '609',
'DOI': '10.1016/S0306-4522(01)00115-4',
'article-title': 'Fibrillar beta-amyloid evokes oxidative damage in a transgenic mouse '
'model of Alzheimer’s disease',
'volume': '104',
'author': 'Matsuoka',
'year': '2001',
'journal-title': 'Neuroscience'},
{ 'key': 'ref_140',
'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref',
'first-page': '14203',
'DOI': '10.1021/bi001876l',
'article-title': 'Oxidative regulation of fatty acid-induced tau polymerization',
'volume': '39',
'author': 'Gamblin',
'year': '2000',
'journal-title': 'Biochemistry'},
{ 'key': 'ref_141',
'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref',
'unstructured': 'Melov, S., Adlard, P.A., Morten, K., Johnson, F., Golden, T.R., '
'Hinerfeld, D., Schilling, B., Mavros, C., Masters, C.L., and Volitakis, '
'I. (2007). Mitochondrial oxidative stress causes hyperphosphorylation of '
'tau. PLoS ONE, 2.',
'DOI': '10.1371/journal.pone.0000536'},
{ 'key': 'ref_142',
'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref',
'first-page': '10469',
'DOI': '10.1073/pnas.171202698',
'article-title': 'Does oxidative damage to DNA increase with age?',
'volume': '98',
'author': 'Hamilton',
'year': '2001',
'journal-title': 'Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA'},
{ 'key': 'ref_143',
'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref',
'unstructured': 'Kozlov, E.M., Ivanova, E., Grechko, A.V., Wu, W.K., Starodubova, A.V., '
'and Orekhov, A.N. (2021). Involvement of Oxidative Stress and the Innate '
'Immune System in SARS-CoV-2 Infection. Diseases, 9.',
'DOI': '10.3390/diseases9010017'},
{ 'key': 'ref_144',
'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref',
'first-page': '110102',
'DOI': '10.1016/j.mehy.2020.110102',
'article-title': 'SARS-CoV-2 infection pathogenesis is related to oxidative stress as a '
'response to aggression',
'volume': '143',
'author': 'Cecchini',
'year': '2020',
'journal-title': 'Med. Hypotheses'},
{ 'key': 'ref_145',
'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref',
'first-page': '106414',
'DOI': '10.1016/j.clineuro.2020.106414',
'article-title': 'Possible immunity, inflammation, and oxidative stress mechanisms of '
'Alzheimer’s disease in COVID-19 patients',
'volume': '201',
'author': 'Wang',
'year': '2021',
'journal-title': 'Clin. Neurol. Neurosurg.'},
{ 'key': 'ref_146',
'doi-asserted-by': 'crossref',
'first-page': '111250',
'DOI': '10.1016/j.mad.2020.111250',
'article-title': 'Redox modifications in synaptic components as biomarkers of cognitive '
'status, in brain aging and disease',
'volume': '189',
'author': 'Ardiles',
'year': '2020',
'journal-title': 'Mech. Ageing Dev.'}],
'container-title': 'International Journal of Molecular Sciences',
'original-title': [],
'language': 'en',
'link': [ { 'URL': 'https://www.mdpi.com/1422-0067/25/16/8715/pdf',
'content-type': 'unspecified',
'content-version': 'vor',
'intended-application': 'similarity-checking'}],
'deposited': { 'date-parts': [[2024, 8, 14]],
'date-time': '2024-08-14T07:53:20Z',
'timestamp': 1723622000000},
'score': 1,
'resource': {'primary': {'URL': 'https://www.mdpi.com/1422-0067/25/16/8715'}},
'subtitle': [],
'short-title': [],
'issued': {'date-parts': [[2024, 8, 9]]},
'references-count': 146,
'journal-issue': {'issue': '16', 'published-online': {'date-parts': [[2024, 8]]}},
'alternative-id': ['ijms25168715'],
'URL': 'http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijms25168715',
'relation': {},
'ISSN': ['1422-0067'],
'subject': [],
'container-title-short': 'IJMS',
'published': {'date-parts': [[2024, 8, 9]]}}
