Supplementary Data — Azelastine for COVID-19: real-time meta analysis of 4 studies

0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1 1.25 1.5 1.75 2+ CARVIN Klussmann (DB RCT) 66% 0.34 [0.01-7.95] no recov. 0/29 1/30 Improvement, RR [CI] Treatment Control CARVIN Klussmann (DB RCT) 67% 0.33 [0.01-7.79] no recov. 0/31 1/30 CARVIN Klussmann (DB RCT) 13% 0.87 [0.57-1.33] no recov. 29 (n) 30 (n) CARVIN Klussmann (DB RCT) -33% 1.33 [0.81-2.17] no recov. 31 (n) 30 (n) CARVIN Klussmann (DB RCT) 14% 0.86 [0.67-1.09] viral load 29 (n) 30 (n) CARVIN Klussmann (DB RCT) 7% 0.93 [0.74-1.16] viral load 31 (n) 30 (n) CARVIN Klussmann (DB RCT) 22% 0.78 [0.62-0.99] viral+ 29 (n) 30 (n) CARVIN Klussmann (DB RCT) 6% 0.94 [0.77-1.15] viral+ 31 (n) 30 (n) CARVIN-II Meiser (DB RCT) 12% 0.88 [0.64-1.20] recovery 122 (n) 129 (n) CARVIN-II Meiser (DB RCT) 6% 0.94 [0.91-0.96] viral load 122 (n) 129 (n) CARVIN-II Meiser (DB RCT) 2% 0.98 [0.97-0.99] viral load 122 (n) 129 (n) CARVIN-II Meiser (DB RCT) 1% 0.99 [0.98-1.00] viral load 122 (n) 129 (n) CARVIN-II Meiser (DB RCT) 3% 0.97 [0.96-0.98] viral+ 122 (n) 129 (n) Reznikov 45% 0.55 [0.32-0.94] cases n/a n/a Reznikov 59% 0.41 [0.25-0.68] cases n/a n/a Reznikov 29% 0.71 [0.44-1.15] cases n/a n/a CONTAIN Lehr (DB RCT) 72% 0.28 [0.09-0.84] symp. case 4/227 14/223 CONTAIN Lehr (DB RCT) 69% 0.31 [0.11-0.86] cases 5/227 15/223 CONTAIN Lehr (DB RCT) 34% 0.66 [0.60-0.73] viral time 227 (n) 223 (n) Azelastine COVID-19 outcomes c19early.org November 2025 Favors azelastine Favors control
Fig. S1. All outcomes.
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Fig. S2. Comparison of results for RCTs versus observational studies. For COVID-19 treatments, there is no significant difference between the results of RCTs and observational studies. Observational studies do not systematically over or underestimate efficacy. For high-cost treatments, there is a non-significant trend towards RCTs showing greater efficacy.