Broad Neutralizing Antibodies Against SARS-CoV-2: Current Progress and Engineering Strategies

DOI record: { "DOI": "10.3390/v18060642", "ISSN": [ "1999-4915" ], "URL": "http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/v18060642", "abstract": "<jats:p>The high-frequency mutation characteristics of SARS-CoV-2 have posed formidable challenges to the development of vaccines and therapeutic agents. Neutralizing antibodies, which serve as effective tools for prevention and control, have undergone continuous updates and iterations in response to viral mutations. This article provides a comprehensive review of researchers’ efforts to achieve both high neutralizing potency and high mutation tolerance in SARS-CoV-2–targeting neutralizing antibodies. Building on the characteristics of conventional antibodies directed against distinct epitopes on the S protein, it further discusses the research on nanobodies, antibody cocktails, multi-specific antibodies, and other antibody formats and engineering approaches, including artificial intelligence–enabled optimization. Each antibody-based strategy targeting SARS-CoV-2 has its own distinctive advantages and potential applications, providing an integrated perspective to support the continued development of antiviral neutralizing antibodies.</jats:p>", "alternative-id": [ "v18060642" ], "author": [ { "affiliation": [ { "name": "State Key Laboratory of Vaccines for Infectious Diseases, Xiang An Biomedicine Laboratory, School of Public Health, School of Life Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361102, China" }, { "name": "National Institute of Diagnostics and Vaccine Development in Infectious Diseases, Collaborative Innovation Center of Biologic Products, National Innovation Platform for Industry-Education Integration in Vaccine Research, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361102, China" } ], "family": "Jia", "given": "Tianrong", "role": [ { "role": "author", "vocabulary": "crossref" } ], "sequence": "first" }, { "affiliation": [ { "name": "State Key Laboratory of Vaccines for Infectious Diseases, Xiang An Biomedicine Laboratory, School of Public Health, School of Life Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361102, China" }, { "name": "National Institute of Diagnostics and Vaccine Development in Infectious Diseases, Collaborative Innovation Center of Biologic Products, National Innovation Platform for Industry-Education Integration in Vaccine Research, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361102, China" } ], "family": "Huang", "given": "Zehong", "role": [ { "role": "author", "vocabulary": "crossref" } ], "sequence": "additional" }, { "ORCID": "https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0179-5266", "affiliation": [ { "name": "State Key Laboratory of Vaccines for Infectious Diseases, Xiang An Biomedicine Laboratory, School of Public Health, School of Life Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361102, China" }, { "name": "National Institute of Diagnostics and Vaccine Development in Infectious Diseases, Collaborative Innovation Center of Biologic Products, National Innovation Platform for Industry-Education Integration in Vaccine Research, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361102, China" } ], "authenticated-orcid": false, "family": "Xia", "given": "Ningshao", "role": [ { "role": "author", "vocabulary": "crossref" } ], "sequence": "additional" }, { "affiliation": [ { "name": "State Key Laboratory of Vaccines for Infectious Diseases, Xiang An Biomedicine Laboratory, School of Public Health, School of Life Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361102, China" }, { "name": "National Institute of Diagnostics and Vaccine Development in Infectious Diseases, Collaborative Innovation Center of Biologic Products, National Innovation Platform for Industry-Education Integration in Vaccine Research, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361102, China" } ], "family": "Yuan", "given": "Quan", "role": [ { "role": "author", "vocabulary": "crossref" } ], "sequence": "additional" } ], "container-title": "Viruses", "container-title-short": "Viruses", "content-domain": { "crossmark-restriction": false, "domain": [] }, "created": { "date-parts": [ [ 2026, 6, 3 ] ], "date-time": "2026-06-03T18:08:07Z", "timestamp": 1780510087000 }, "deposited": { "date-parts": [ [ 2026, 6, 3 ] ], "date-time": "2026-06-03T18:12:37Z", "timestamp": 1780510357000 }, "funder": [ { "DOI": "10.13039/501100001809", "award": [ "824B2066" ], "award-info": [ { "award-number": [ "824B2066" ] } ], "doi-asserted-by": "publisher", "id": [ { "asserted-by": "publisher", "id": "10.13039/501100001809", "id-type": "DOI" } ], "name": "National Natural Science Foundation of China" }, { "DOI": "10.13039/501100001809", "award": [ "92369110" ], "award-info": [ { "award-number": [ "92369110" ] } ], "doi-asserted-by": "publisher", "id": [ { "asserted-by": "publisher", "id": "10.13039/501100001809", "id-type": "DOI" } ], "name": "National Natural Science Foundation of China" }, { "DOI": "10.13039/501100001809", "award": [ "82272305" ], "award-info": [ { "award-number": [ "82272305" ] } ], "doi-asserted-by": "publisher", "id": [ { "asserted-by": "publisher", "id": "10.13039/501100001809", "id-type": "DOI" } ], "name": "National Natural Science Foundation of China" }, { "award": [ "824B2066" ], "award-info": [ { "award-number": [ "824B2066" ] } ], "id": [ { "asserted-by": "publisher", "id": "https://ror.org/01h0zpd94", "id-type": "ROR" } ] }, { "award": [ "92369110" ], "award-info": [ { "award-number": [ "92369110" ] } ], "id": [ { "asserted-by": "publisher", "id": "https://ror.org/01h0zpd94", "id-type": "ROR" } ] }, { "award": [ "82272305" ], "award-info": [ { "award-number": [ "82272305" ] } ], "id": [ { "asserted-by": "publisher", "id": "https://ror.org/01h0zpd94", "id-type": "ROR" } ] } ], "indexed": { "date-parts": [ [ 2026, 6, 3 ] ], "date-time": "2026-06-03T19:05:37Z", "timestamp": 1780513537017, "version": "3.54.1" }, "is-referenced-by-count": 0, "issue": "6", "issued": { "date-parts": [ [ 2026, 6, 3 ] ] }, "journal-issue": { "issue": "6", "published-online": { "date-parts": [ [ 2026, 6 ] ] } }, "language": "en", "license": [ { "URL": "https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "content-version": "vor", "delay-in-days": 0, "start": { "date-parts": [ [ 2026, 6, 3 ] ], "date-time": "2026-06-03T00:00:00Z", "timestamp": 1780444800000 } } ], "link": [ { "URL": "https://www.mdpi.com/1999-4915/18/6/642/pdf", "content-type": "unspecified", "content-version": "vor", "intended-application": "similarity-checking" } ], "member": "1968", "original-title": [], "page": "642", "prefix": "10.3390", "published": { "date-parts": [ [ 2026, 6, 3 ] ] }, "published-online": { "date-parts": [ [ 2026, 6, 3 ] ] }, "publisher": "MDPI AG", "reference": [ { "DOI": "10.1128/jvi.00128-22", "article-title": "Distinctive Roles of Furin and TMPRSS2 in SARS-CoV-2 Infectivity", "author": "Essalmani", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "e0012822", "journal-title": "J. Virol.", "key": "ref_1", "volume": "96", "year": "2022" }, { "DOI": "10.1038/s41467-025-60406-z", "article-title": "Unveiling the structural spectrum of SARS-CoV-2 fusion by in situ cryo-ET", "author": "Xu", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "5150", "journal-title": "Nat. Commun.", "key": "ref_2", "volume": "16", "year": "2025" }, { "DOI": "10.1126/science.adn5658", "article-title": "Structure and inhibition of SARS-CoV-2 spike refolding in membranes", "author": "Grunst", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "757", "journal-title": "Science", "key": "ref_3", "volume": "385", "year": "2024" }, { "DOI": "10.1038/s41579-025-01185-8", "article-title": "SARS-CoV-2 spike protein: Structure, viral entry and variants", "author": "Chen", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "455", "journal-title": "Nat. Rev. Microbiol.", "key": "ref_4", "volume": "23", "year": "2025" }, { "DOI": "10.1038/s41586-023-06273-4", "article-title": "Cryo-EM structure of SARS-CoV-2 postfusion spike in membrane", "author": "Shi", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "403", "journal-title": "Nature", "key": "ref_5", "volume": "619", "year": "2023" }, { "DOI": "10.1126/science.abb2507", "article-title": "Cryo-EM structure of the 2019-nCoV spike in the prefusion conformation", "author": "Wrapp", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "1260", "journal-title": "Science", "key": "ref_6", "volume": "367", "year": "2020" }, { "DOI": "10.1126/science.abd4251", "article-title": "Distinct conformational states of SARS-CoV-2 spike protein", "author": "Cai", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "1586", "journal-title": "Science", "key": "ref_7", "volume": "369", "year": "2020" }, { "DOI": "10.1126/science.abn8897", "article-title": "Structural basis for potent antibody neutralization of SARS-CoV-2 variants including B.1.1.529", "author": "Zhou", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "eabn8897", "journal-title": "Science", "key": "ref_8", "volume": "376", "year": "2022" }, { "DOI": "10.3389/fimmu.2022.980435", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "key": "ref_9", "unstructured": "Ji, Y., Zhang, Q., Cheng, L., Ge, J., Wang, R., Fang, M., Mucker, E.M., Chen, P., Ma, J., and Zhang, R. (2022). Preclinical characterization of amubarvimab and romlusevimab, a pair of non-competing neutralizing monoclonal antibody cocktail, against SARS-CoV-2. Front. Immunol., 13." }, { "DOI": "10.1038/s41586-020-2852-1", "article-title": "SARS-CoV-2 neutralizing antibody structures inform therapeutic strategies", "author": "Barnes", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "682", "journal-title": "Nature", "key": "ref_10", "volume": "588", "year": "2020" }, { "DOI": "10.1038/s41467-024-45050-3", "article-title": "Identification of a highly conserved neutralizing epitope within the RBD region of diverse SARS-CoV-2 variants", "author": "Wang", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "842", "journal-title": "Nat. Commun.", "key": "ref_11", "volume": "15", "year": "2024" }, { "DOI": "10.1038/s41467-024-45171-9", "article-title": "A monoclonal antibody targeting a large surface of the receptor binding motif shows pan-neutralizing SARS-CoV-2 activity", "author": "Modrego", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "1051", "journal-title": "Nat. Commun.", "key": "ref_12", "volume": "15", "year": "2024" }, { "DOI": "10.1126/sciimmunol.abp9312", "article-title": "An ACE2-blocking antibody confers broad neutralization and protection against Omicron and other SARS-CoV-2 variants of concern", "author": "Du", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "eabp9312", "journal-title": "Sci. Immunol.", "key": "ref_13", "volume": "7", "year": "2022" }, { "DOI": "10.1038/s41467-023-37926-7", "article-title": "Inactivated vaccine-elicited potent antibodies can broadly neutralize SARS-CoV-2 circulating variants", "author": "Liu", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "2179", "journal-title": "Nat. Commun.", "key": "ref_14", "volume": "14", "year": "2023" }, { "DOI": "10.1126/scitranslmed.ado2817", "article-title": "AZD3152 neutralizes SARS-CoV-2 historical and contemporary variants and is protective in hamsters and well tolerated in adults", "author": "Cai", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "eado2817", "journal-title": "Sci. Transl. Med.", "key": "ref_15", "volume": "16", "year": "2024" }, { "key": "ref_16", "unstructured": "(2026, May 28). Sipavibart EMA Regulatory Submission Accepted Under Accelerated Assessment for COVID-19 Prevention. Available online: https://www.astrazeneca.com/media-centre/press-releases/2024/sipavibart-ema-regulatory-submission-accepted-under-accelerated-assessment-for-covid-19-prevention.html." }, { "DOI": "10.1126/science.abm8143", "article-title": "Antibody-mediated broad sarbecovirus neutralization through ACE2 molecular mimicry", "author": "Park", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "449", "journal-title": "Science", "key": "ref_17", "volume": "375", "year": "2022" }, { "DOI": "10.1038/s41586-022-04980-y", "article-title": "BA.2.12.1, BA.4 and BA.5 escape antibodies elicited by Omicron infection", "author": "Cao", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "593", "journal-title": "Nature", "key": "ref_18", "volume": "608", "year": "2022" }, { "DOI": "10.1038/s41586-021-04386-2", "article-title": "Broadly neutralizing antibodies overcome SARS-CoV-2 Omicron antigenic shift", "author": "Cameroni", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "664", "journal-title": "Nature", "key": "ref_19", "volume": "602", "year": "2022" }, { "DOI": "10.1038/s41467-024-51973-8", "article-title": "Structural basis for the evolution and antibody evasion of SARS-CoV-2 BA.2.86 and JN.1 subvariants", "author": "Yang", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "7715", "journal-title": "Nat. Commun.", "key": "ref_20", "volume": "15", "year": "2024" }, { "DOI": "10.1038/s41467-023-36295-5", "article-title": "Broadly neutralizing SARS-CoV-2 antibodies through epitope-based selection from convalescent patients", "author": "Rouet", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "687", "journal-title": "Nat. Commun.", "key": "ref_21", "volume": "14", "year": "2023" }, { "DOI": "10.1016/j.ebiom.2024.105354", "article-title": "Ultrapotent class I neutralizing antibodies post Omicron breakthrough infection overcome broad SARS-CoV-2 escape variants", "author": "Luo", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "105354", "journal-title": "eBioMedicine", "key": "ref_22", "volume": "108", "year": "2024" }, { "DOI": "10.1038/s41590-023-01449-6", "article-title": "Infection with wild-type SARS-CoV-2 elicits broadly neutralizing and protective antibodies against omicron subvariants", "author": "Ju", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "690", "journal-title": "Nat. Immunol.", "key": "ref_23", "volume": "24", "year": "2023" }, { "DOI": "10.1016/j.jinf.2023.10.008", "article-title": "Broadly potent anti-SARS-CoV-2 antibody shares 93% of epitope with ACE2 and provides full protection in monkeys", "author": "Fenwick", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "524", "journal-title": "J. Infect.", "key": "ref_24", "volume": "87", "year": "2023" }, { "DOI": "10.1371/journal.ppat.1011856", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "key": "ref_25", "unstructured": "Li, L., Chen, X., Wang, Z., Li, Y., Wang, C., Jiang, L., and Zuo, T. (2023). Breakthrough infection elicits hypermutated IGHV3-53/3-66 public antibodies with broad and potent neutralizing activity against SARS-CoV-2 variants including the emerging EG.5 lineages. PLoS Pathog., 19." }, { "DOI": "10.1016/j.cell.2024.09.026", "article-title": "A potent pan-sarbecovirus neutralizing antibody resilient to epitope diversification", "author": "Rosen", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "7196", "journal-title": "Cell", "key": "ref_26", "volume": "187", "year": "2024" }, { "DOI": "10.1038/s41564-025-02030-7", "article-title": "Viral evolution prediction identifies broadly neutralizing antibodies to existing and prospective SARS-CoV-2 variants", "author": "Jian", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "2003", "journal-title": "Nat. Microbiol.", "key": "ref_27", "volume": "10", "year": "2025" }, { "DOI": "10.1002/advs.202517192", "article-title": "IgG-Bridging-Seeded Synergistic Aggregation of SARS-CoV-2 Spikes Underlies Potent Neutralization by a Low-Affinity Antibody", "author": "Lv", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "e17192", "journal-title": "Adv. Sci.", "key": "ref_28", "volume": "13", "year": "2026" }, { "DOI": "10.1016/j.celrep.2024.114265", "article-title": "An unconventional VH1-2 antibody tolerates escape mutations and shows an antigenic hotspot on SARS-CoV-2 spike", "author": "Liu", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "114265", "journal-title": "Cell Rep.", "key": "ref_29", "volume": "43", "year": "2024" }, { "DOI": "10.1038/s41586-022-05053-w", "article-title": "Antibody evasion by SARS-CoV-2 Omicron subvariants BA.2.12.1, BA.4 and BA.5", "author": "Wang", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "603", "journal-title": "Nature", "key": "ref_30", "volume": "608", "year": "2022" }, { "DOI": "10.1038/s41586-020-2349-y", "article-title": "Cross-neutralization of SARS-CoV-2 by a human monoclonal SARS-CoV antibody", "author": "Pinto", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "290", "journal-title": "Nature", "key": "ref_31", "volume": "583", "year": "2020" }, { "DOI": "10.1128/jvi.01137-23", "article-title": "Structural basis for broad neutralization of human antibody against Omicron sublineages and evasion by XBB variant", "author": "Sun", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "e01137-23", "journal-title": "J. Virol.", "key": "ref_32", "volume": "97", "year": "2023" }, { "DOI": "10.1126/sciimmunol.add5446", "article-title": "An antibody from single human VH-rearranging mouse neutralizes all SARS-CoV-2 variants through BA.5 by inhibiting membrane fusion", "author": "Luo", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "eadd5446", "journal-title": "Sci. Immunol.", "key": "ref_33", "volume": "7", "year": "2022" }, { "DOI": "10.1126/sciimmunol.abp9962", "article-title": "An antibody that neutralizes SARS-CoV-1 and SARS-CoV-2 by binding to a conserved spike epitope outside the receptor binding motif", "author": "Fang", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "eabp9962", "journal-title": "Sci. Immunol.", "key": "ref_34", "volume": "7", "year": "2022" }, { "DOI": "10.1016/j.celrep.2022.110812", "article-title": "LY-CoV1404 (bebtelovimab) potently neutralizes SARS-CoV-2 variants", "author": "Westendorf", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "110812", "journal-title": "Cell Rep.", "key": "ref_35", "volume": "39", "year": "2022" }, { "DOI": "10.1038/s41421-022-00509-9", "article-title": "Biparatopic antibody BA7208/7125 effectively neutralizes SARS-CoV-2 variants including Omicron BA.1-BA.5", "author": "Wang", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "3", "journal-title": "Cell Discov.", "key": "ref_36", "volume": "9", "year": "2023" }, { "DOI": "10.1126/science.adc9127", "article-title": "Imprinted antibody responses against SARS-CoV-2 Omicron sublineages", "author": "Park", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "619", "journal-title": "Science", "key": "ref_37", "volume": "378", "year": "2022" }, { "key": "ref_38", "unstructured": "U.S. Food and Drug Administration (2026, May 28). Frequently Asked Questions on the Emergency Use Authorization of Sotrovimab, Available online: https://www.fda.gov/media/149535/download." }, { "key": "ref_39", "unstructured": "U.S. Food and Drug Administration (2026, May 28). Frequently Asked Questions on the Emergency Use Authorization of Bebtelovimab for the Treatment of COVID-19, Available online: https://www.fda.gov/media/156154/download." }, { "DOI": "10.1126/science.abb7269", "article-title": "A highly conserved cryptic epitope in the receptor binding domains of SARS-CoV-2 and SARS-CoV", "author": "Yuan", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "630", "journal-title": "Science", "key": "ref_40", "volume": "368", "year": "2020" }, { "DOI": "10.1016/j.chom.2020.06.010", "article-title": "Neutralization of SARS-CoV-2 by Destruction of the Prefusion Spike", "author": "Huo", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "445", "journal-title": "Cell Host Microbe", "key": "ref_41", "volume": "28", "year": "2020" }, { "DOI": "10.1073/pnas.2205784119", "article-title": "A broad and potent neutralization epitope in SARS-related coronaviruses", "author": "Yuan", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "e2205784119", "journal-title": "Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA", "key": "ref_42", "volume": "119", "year": "2022" }, { "DOI": "10.1016/j.str.2023.11.015", "article-title": "Antibody targeting of conserved sites of vulnerability on the SARS-CoV-2 spike receptor-binding domain", "author": "Sankhala", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "131", "journal-title": "Structure", "key": "ref_43", "volume": "32", "year": "2024" }, { "DOI": "10.1126/scitranslmed.abj7125", "article-title": "A broadly cross-reactive antibody neutralizes and protects against sarbecovirus challenge in mice", "author": "Martinez", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "eabj7125", "journal-title": "Sci. Transl. Med.", "key": "ref_44", "volume": "14", "year": "2022" }, { "key": "ref_45", "unstructured": "ClinicalTrials (2026, May 28). Evaluation of ADG20 for the Prevention of COVID-19 (EVADE), Available online: https://clinicaltrials.gov/study/NCT04859517?intr=ADG20&viewType=Card&rank=1." }, { "DOI": "10.1073/pnas.2537053123", "article-title": "Recurrent SARS-CoV-2 Omicron broadly neutralizing humanized antibodies in different single human VH1-2-rearranging mouse models", "author": "Batra", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "e2537053123", "journal-title": "Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA", "key": "ref_46", "volume": "123", "year": "2026" }, { "DOI": "10.1038/s41586-021-03807-6", "article-title": "SARS-CoV-2 RBD antibodies that maximize breadth and resistance to escape", "author": "Starr", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "97", "journal-title": "Nature", "key": "ref_47", "volume": "597", "year": "2021" }, { "DOI": "10.1016/j.celrep.2022.110862", "article-title": "Three SARS-CoV-2 antibodies provide broad and synergistic neutralization against variants of concern, including Omicron", "author": "Wang", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "110862", "journal-title": "Cell Rep.", "key": "ref_48", "volume": "39", "year": "2022" }, { "DOI": "10.1101/2024.04.24.590836", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "key": "ref_49", "unstructured": "Ruiz, F., Foreman, W.B., Lilly, M., Baharani, V.A., Depierreux, D.M., Chohan, V., Taylor, A.L., Guenthoer, J., Ralph, D., and Matsen Iv, F.A. (2024). Delineating the functional activity of antibodies with cross-reactivity to SARS-CoV-2, SARS-CoV-1 and related sarbecoviruses. PLoS Pathog., 20." }, { "DOI": "10.3389/fimmu.2021.678570", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "key": "ref_50", "unstructured": "Bullen, G., Galson, J.D., Hall, G., Villar, P., Moreels, L., Ledsgaard, L., Mattiuzzo, G., Bentley, E.M., Masters, E.W., and Tang, D. (2021). Cross-Reactive SARS-CoV-2 Neutralizing Antibodies From Deep Mining of Early Patient Responses. Front. Immunol., 12." }, { "DOI": "10.1016/j.chom.2021.03.005", "article-title": "Potent SARS-CoV-2 neutralizing antibodies directed against spike N-terminal domain target a single supersite", "author": "Cerutti", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "819", "journal-title": "Cell Host Microbe", "key": "ref_51", "volume": "29", "year": "2021" }, { "DOI": "10.1016/j.chom.2021.04.010", "article-title": "An NTD supersite of attack", "author": "Lok", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "744", "journal-title": "Cell Host Microbe", "key": "ref_52", "volume": "29", "year": "2021" }, { "DOI": "10.1016/j.celrep.2021.109928", "article-title": "Neutralizing antibody 5-7 defines a distinct site of vulnerability in SARS-CoV-2 spike N-terminal domain", "author": "Cerutti", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "109928", "journal-title": "Cell Rep.", "key": "ref_53", "volume": "37", "year": "2021" }, { "DOI": "10.1016/j.chom.2022.05.001", "article-title": "Antibody evasion of SARS-CoV-2 Omicron BA.1, BA.1.1, BA.2, and BA.3 sub-lineages", "author": "Ai", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "1077", "journal-title": "Cell Host Microbe", "key": "ref_54", "volume": "30", "year": "2022" }, { "DOI": "10.1016/j.immuni.2022.04.003", "article-title": "Analysis of memory B cells identifies conserved neutralizing epitopes on the N-terminal domain of variant SARS-CoV-2 spike proteins", "author": "Wang", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "998", "journal-title": "Immunity", "key": "ref_55", "volume": "55", "year": "2022" }, { "DOI": "10.1080/22221751.2024.2412990", "article-title": "Omicron-specific ultra-potent SARS-CoV-2 neutralizing antibodies targeting the N1/N2 loop of Spike N-terminal domain", "author": "Niu", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "2412990", "journal-title": "Emerg. Microbes Infect.", "key": "ref_56", "volume": "13", "year": "2024" }, { "DOI": "10.1038/s42003-024-06951-7", "article-title": "Broadly potent spike-specific human monoclonal antibodies inhibit SARS-CoV-2 Omicron sub-lineages", "author": "Walker", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "1239", "journal-title": "Commun. Biol.", "key": "ref_57", "volume": "7", "year": "2024" }, { "DOI": "10.1126/scitranslmed.adq5720", "article-title": "Bispecific antibodies targeting the N-terminal and receptor binding domains potently neutralize SARS-CoV-2 variants of concern", "author": "Rubio", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "eadq5720", "journal-title": "Sci. Transl. Med.", "key": "ref_58", "volume": "17", "year": "2025" }, { "DOI": "10.1038/s41586-022-04581-9", "article-title": "Molecular basis of receptor binding and antibody neutralization of Omicron", "author": "Hong", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "546", "journal-title": "Nature", "key": "ref_59", "volume": "604", "year": "2022" }, { "DOI": "10.1080/22221751.2021.2024455", "article-title": "Mapping cross-variant neutralizing sites on the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein", "author": "Xu", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "351", "journal-title": "Emerg. Microbes Infect.", "key": "ref_60", "volume": "11", "year": "2022" }, { "DOI": "10.1101/2023.08.30.555211", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "key": "ref_61", "unstructured": "Jian, F., Feng, L., Yang, S., Yu, Y., Wang, L., Song, W., Yisimayi, A., Chen, X., Xu, Y., and Wang, P. (2023). Convergent evolution of SARS-CoV-2 XBB lineages on receptor-binding domain 455–456 synergistically enhances antibody evasion and ACE2 binding. PLoS Pathog., 19." }, { "DOI": "10.1038/s41467-024-53033-7", "article-title": "Lineage-specific pathogenicity, immune evasion, and virological features of SARS-CoV-2 BA.2.86/JN.1 and EG.5.1/HK.3", "author": "Liu", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "8728", "journal-title": "Nat. Commun.", "key": "ref_62", "volume": "15", "year": "2024" }, { "DOI": "10.1016/S1473-3099(23)00573-X", "article-title": "Antigenicity and infectivity characterisation of SARS-CoV-2 BA.2.86", "author": "Yang", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "e457", "journal-title": "Lancet Infect. Dis.", "key": "ref_63", "volume": "23", "year": "2023" }, { "DOI": "10.1038/s41467-024-46982-6", "article-title": "The SARS-CoV-2 neutralizing antibody response to SD1 and its evasion by BA.2.86", "author": "Zhou", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "2734", "journal-title": "Nat. Commun.", "key": "ref_64", "volume": "15", "year": "2024" }, { "DOI": "10.1016/j.celrep.2022.111276", "article-title": "A neutralizing epitope on the SD1 domain of SARS-CoV-2 spike targeted following infection and vaccination", "author": "Seow", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "111276", "journal-title": "Cell Rep.", "key": "ref_65", "volume": "40", "year": "2022" }, { "DOI": "10.1126/sciimmunol.ade0958", "article-title": "Human neutralizing antibodies to cold linear epitopes and subdomain 1 of the SARS-CoV-2 spike glycoprotein", "author": "Bianchini", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "eade0958", "journal-title": "Sci. Immunol.", "key": "ref_66", "volume": "8", "year": "2023" }, { "DOI": "10.1073/pnas.2220948120", "article-title": "Identification of broad, potent antibodies to functionally constrained regions of SARS-CoV-2 spike following a breakthrough infection", "author": "Guenthoer", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "e2220948120", "journal-title": "Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA", "key": "ref_67", "volume": "120", "year": "2023" }, { "DOI": "10.1128/jvi.00416-24", "article-title": "Epitopes of an antibody that neutralizes a wide range of SARS-CoV-2 variants in a conserved subdomain 1 of the spike protein", "author": "Ishimaru", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "e0041624", "journal-title": "J. Virol.", "key": "ref_68", "volume": "98", "year": "2024" }, { "DOI": "10.1038/s41392-023-01472-x", "article-title": "Targetable elements in SARS-CoV-2 S2 subunit for the design of pan-coronavirus fusion inhibitors and vaccines", "author": "Guo", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "197", "journal-title": "Signal Transduct. Target. Ther.", "key": "ref_69", "volume": "8", "year": "2023" }, { "DOI": "10.1038/s41564-022-01155-3", "article-title": "Neutralization mechanism of a human antibody with pan-coronavirus reactivity including SARS-CoV-2", "author": "Sun", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "1063", "journal-title": "Nat. Microbiol.", "key": "ref_70", "volume": "7", "year": "2022" }, { "DOI": "10.1101/2024.02.26.582219", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "key": "ref_71", "unstructured": "Guenthoer, J., Garrett, M.E., Lilly, M., Depierreux, D.M., Ruiz, F., Chi, M., Stoddard, C.I., Chohan, V., Yaffe, Z.A., and Sung, K. (2024). The S2 subunit of spike encodes diverse targets for functional antibody responses to SARS-CoV-2. PLoS Pathog., 20." }, { "DOI": "10.1126/science.abq3773", "article-title": "Broadly neutralizing antibodies target the coronavirus fusion peptide", "author": "Dacon", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "728", "journal-title": "Science", "key": "ref_72", "volume": "377", "year": "2022" }, { "DOI": "10.1126/science.abq2679", "article-title": "ACE2-binding exposes the SARS-CoV-2 fusion peptide to broadly neutralizing coronavirus antibodies", "author": "Low", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "735", "journal-title": "Science", "key": "ref_73", "volume": "377", "year": "2022" }, { "DOI": "10.1126/science.abj3321", "article-title": "Broad betacoronavirus neutralization by a stem helix-specific human antibody", "author": "Pinto", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "1109", "journal-title": "Science", "key": "ref_74", "volume": "373", "year": "2021" }, { "DOI": "10.1038/s42003-022-03262-7", "article-title": "Structural definition of a pan-sarbecovirus neutralizing epitope on the spike S2 subunit", "author": "Hurlburt", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "342", "journal-title": "Commun. Biol.", "key": "ref_75", "volume": "5", "year": "2022" }, { "DOI": "10.1016/j.celrep.2021.109353", "article-title": "Isolation and characterization of cross-neutralizing coronavirus antibodies from COVID-19+ subjects", "author": "Jennewein", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "109353", "journal-title": "Cell Rep.", "key": "ref_76", "volume": "36", "year": "2021" }, { "DOI": "10.1016/j.celrep.2021.110210", "article-title": "Structural basis and mode of action for two broadly neutralizing antibodies against SARS-CoV-2 emerging variants of concern", "author": "Li", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "110210", "journal-title": "Cell Rep.", "key": "ref_77", "volume": "38", "year": "2022" }, { "DOI": "10.1038/s41467-021-23074-3", "article-title": "Cross-reactive serum and memory B-cell responses to spike protein in SARS-CoV-2 and endemic coronavirus infection", "author": "Song", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "2938", "journal-title": "Nat. Commun.", "key": "ref_78", "volume": "12", "year": "2021" }, { "DOI": "10.1126/scitranslmed.abi9215", "article-title": "A human antibody reveals a conserved site on beta-coronavirus spike proteins and confers protection against SARS-CoV-2 infection", "author": "Zhou", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "eabi9215", "journal-title": "Sci. Transl. Med.", "key": "ref_79", "volume": "14", "year": "2022" }, { "DOI": "10.1128/spectrum.01814-21", "article-title": "Neutralizing Monoclonal Antibodies Inhibit SARS-CoV-2 Infection through Blocking Membrane Fusion", "author": "Li", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "e0181421", "journal-title": "Microbiol. Spectr.", "key": "ref_80", "volume": "10", "year": "2022" }, { "DOI": "10.1016/j.str.2022.06.004", "article-title": "Vaccine-elicited murine antibody WS6 neutralizes diverse beta-coronaviruses by recognizing a helical stem supersite of vulnerability", "author": "Shi", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "1233", "journal-title": "Structure", "key": "ref_81", "volume": "30", "year": "2022" }, { "DOI": "10.3390/vaccines13070688", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "key": "ref_82", "unstructured": "Tan, S.S.E., Tam, E.H., Lai, K.M., Wu, Y., Xiao, T., and Tan, Y.J. (2025). Characterization of the Binding and Inhibition Mechanisms of a Novel Neutralizing Monoclonal Antibody Targeting the Stem Helix Region in the S2 Subunit of the Spike Protein of SARS-CoV-2. Vaccines, 13." }, { "DOI": "10.1101/2022.03.05.483133", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "key": "ref_83", "unstructured": "Piepenbrink, M.S., Park, J.G., Deshpande, A., Loos, A., Ye, C., Basu, M., Sarkar, S., Khalil, A.M., Chauvin, D., and Woo, J. (2022). Potent universal beta-coronavirus therapeutic activity mediated by direct respiratory administration of a Spike S2 domain-specific human neutralizing monoclonal antibody. PLoS Pathog., 18." }, { "DOI": "10.1111/febs.16777", "article-title": "Structure and epitope of a neutralizing monoclonal antibody that targets the stem helix of β coronaviruses", "author": "Deshpande", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "3422", "journal-title": "FEBS J.", "key": "ref_84", "volume": "290", "year": "2023" }, { "DOI": "10.1016/j.immuni.2023.02.005", "article-title": "Broadly neutralizing anti-S2 antibodies protect against all three human betacoronaviruses that cause deadly disease", "author": "Zhou", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "669", "journal-title": "Immunity", "key": "ref_85", "volume": "56", "year": "2023" }, { "DOI": "10.1016/j.chom.2022.10.010", "article-title": "Rare, convergent antibodies targeting the stem helix broadly neutralize diverse betacoronaviruses", "author": "Dacon", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "97", "journal-title": "Cell Host Microbe", "key": "ref_86", "volume": "31", "year": "2023" }, { "DOI": "10.1038/s41467-021-21968-w", "article-title": "A conserved immunogenic and vulnerable site on the coronavirus spike protein delineated by cross-reactive monoclonal antibodies", "author": "Wang", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "1715", "journal-title": "Nat. Commun.", "key": "ref_87", "volume": "12", "year": "2021" }, { "DOI": "10.1038/s41594-021-00596-4", "article-title": "Structural basis for broad coronavirus neutralization", "author": "Sauer", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "478", "journal-title": "Nat. Struct. Mol. Biol.", "key": "ref_88", "volume": "28", "year": "2021" }, { "DOI": "10.1016/j.celrep.2021.109929", "article-title": "Stabilized coronavirus spike stem elicits a broadly protective antibody", "author": "Hsieh", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "109929", "journal-title": "Cell Rep.", "key": "ref_89", "volume": "37", "year": "2021" }, { "DOI": "10.1038/s41467-025-63101-1", "article-title": "A broadly neutralizing antibody recognizes a unique epitope with a signature motif common across coronaviruses", "author": "Yan", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "7580", "journal-title": "Nat. Commun.", "key": "ref_90", "volume": "16", "year": "2025" }, { "DOI": "10.7554/eLife.83710", "article-title": "Identification of a conserved S2 epitope present on spike proteins from all highly pathogenic coronaviruses", "author": "Silva", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "e83710", "journal-title": "eLife", "key": "ref_91", "volume": "12", "year": "2023" }, { "DOI": "10.1172/jci.insight.157597", "article-title": "Monoclonal antibody targeting the conserved region of the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein to overcome viral variants", "author": "Wu", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "e157597", "journal-title": "JCI Insight", "key": "ref_92", "volume": "7", "year": "2022" }, { "DOI": "10.1146/annurev-biochem-063011-092449", "article-title": "Nanobodies: Natural single-domain antibodies", "author": "Muyldermans", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "775", "journal-title": "Annu. Rev. Biochem.", "key": "ref_93", "volume": "82", "year": "2013" }, { "DOI": "10.1016/j.drudis.2016.04.003", "article-title": "Nanobodies as therapeutics: Big opportunities for small antibodies", "author": "Steeland", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "1076", "journal-title": "Drug Discov. Today", "key": "ref_94", "volume": "21", "year": "2016" }, { "DOI": "10.1371/journal.ppat.1012726", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "key": "ref_95", "unstructured": "Ye, G., Bu, F., Saxena, D., Turner-Hubbard, H., Herbst, M., Spiller, B., Wadzinski, B.E., Du, L., Liu, B., and Zheng, J. (2024). Discovery of Nanosota-9 as anti-Omicron nanobody therapeutic candidate. PLoS Pathog., 20." }, { "DOI": "10.1016/j.antiviral.2023.105778", "article-title": "Nanobodies to multiple spike variants and inhalation of nanobody-containing aerosols neutralize SARS-CoV-2 in cell culture and hamsters", "author": "Aksu", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "105778", "journal-title": "Antivir. Res.", "key": "ref_96", "volume": "221", "year": "2024" }, { "DOI": "10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2025.145386", "article-title": "Ultra-potent RBM-specific single-domain antibody broadly neutralizes multiple SARS-CoV-2 variants with picomolar activity", "author": "Shcheblyakov", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "145386", "journal-title": "Int. J. Biol. Macromol.", "key": "ref_97", "volume": "319", "year": "2025" }, { "DOI": "10.1371/journal.ppat.1012625", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "key": "ref_98", "unstructured": "Dong, H., Zhou, R., Chen, J., Wei, J., Wei, Z., Yang, Z., Zhu, K., Yang, Y., Yang, Q., and Liu, N. (2024). Super broad and protective nanobodies against Sarbecoviruses including SARS-CoV-1 and the divergent SARS-CoV-2 subvariant KP.3.1.1. PLoS Pathog., 20." }, { "DOI": "10.1021/acs.molpharmaceut.4c00165", "article-title": "Development of Broad-Spectrum Nanobodies for the Therapy and Diagnosis of SARS-CoV-2 and Its Multiple Variants", "author": "He", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "3866", "journal-title": "Mol. Pharm.", "key": "ref_99", "volume": "21", "year": "2024" }, { "DOI": "10.1016/j.isci.2023.107085", "article-title": "A nanobody recognizes a unique conserved epitope and potently neutralizes SARS-CoV-2 omicron variants", "author": "Modhiran", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "107085", "journal-title": "iScience", "key": "ref_100", "volume": "26", "year": "2023" }, { "DOI": "10.1002/mco2.397", "article-title": "A potent and broad-spectrum neutralizing nanobody for SARS-CoV-2 viruses, including all major Omicron strains", "author": "Yao", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "e397", "journal-title": "MedComm", "key": "ref_101", "volume": "4", "year": "2023" }, { "DOI": "10.1038/s41467-022-35642-2", "article-title": "Broadly neutralizing and protective nanobodies against SARS-CoV-2 Omicron subvariants BA.1, BA.2, and BA.4/5 and diverse sarbecoviruses", "author": "Li", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "7957", "journal-title": "Nat. Commun.", "key": "ref_102", "volume": "13", "year": "2022" }, { "DOI": "10.1186/s12951-022-01619-y", "article-title": "A potent synthetic nanobody with broad-spectrum activity neutralizes SARS-CoV-2 virus and the Omicron variant BA.1 through a unique binding mode", "author": "Zhao", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "411", "journal-title": "J. Nanobiotechnol.", "key": "ref_103", "volume": "20", "year": "2022" }, { "DOI": "10.1002/EXP.20230086", "article-title": "A novel nanobody broadly neutralizes SARS-CoV-2 via induction of spike trimer dimers conformation", "author": "Yang", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "20230086", "journal-title": "Exploration", "key": "ref_104", "volume": "4", "year": "2024" }, { "DOI": "10.1038/s41392-024-01847-8", "article-title": "Enhanced potency of an IgM-like nanobody targeting conserved epitope in SARS-CoV-2 spike N-terminal domain", "author": "Liu", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "131", "journal-title": "Signal Transduct. Target. Ther.", "key": "ref_105", "volume": "9", "year": "2024" }, { "DOI": "10.1371/journal.ppat.1013034", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "key": "ref_106", "unstructured": "Guo, L., Chen, Z., Lin, S., Yang, F., Yang, J., Wang, L., Zhang, X., Yuan, X., He, B., and Cao, Y. (2025). Structural basis and mode of action for two broadly neutralizing nanobodies targeting the highly conserved spike stem-helix of sarbecoviruses including SARS-CoV-2 and its variants. PLoS Pathog., 21." }, { "DOI": "10.1038/s41467-025-60250-1", "article-title": "Ultrapotent SARS coronavirus-neutralizing single-domain antibodies that clamp the spike at its base", "author": "Shoemaker", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "5040", "journal-title": "Nat. Commun.", "key": "ref_107", "volume": "16", "year": "2025" }, { "DOI": "10.1186/s12951-025-03150-2", "article-title": "A shark-derived broadly neutralizing nanobody targeting a highly conserved epitope on the S2 domain of sarbecoviruses", "author": "Feng", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "110", "journal-title": "J. Nanobiotechnol.", "key": "ref_108", "volume": "23", "year": "2025" }, { "DOI": "10.1096/fj.202202099RR", "article-title": "Identification of nurse shark V(NAR) single-domain antibodies targeting the spike S2 subunit of SARS-CoV-2", "author": "Buffington", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "e22973", "journal-title": "FASEB J.", "key": "ref_109", "volume": "37", "year": "2023" }, { "DOI": "10.3389/fimmu.2026.1799333", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "key": "ref_110", "unstructured": "Korobkova, A.I., Favorskaya, I.A., Shuliakova, I.V., Iliukhina, A.A., Grousova, D.M., Alekseeva, I.A., Ryabova, E.I., Derkaev, A.A., Azizyan, V.V., and Zorkov, I.D. (2026). Broadly neutralizing single-domain antibody targeting the spike NTD displays therapeutic efficacy against diverse SARS-CoV-2 variants. Front. Immunol., 17." }, { "DOI": "10.64898/2026.01.08.698330", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "key": "ref_111", "unstructured": "Clarke, J., Jones, L., Buckle, I., Sharma, P., Park, E., Kipar, A., Kirby, A., Mega, D., Ramadurai, S., and Karmakar, A. (2026). Nanobodies against the S2 region of the spike protein potently neutralize SARS-CoV-2 viruses and show resistance to virus escape. bioRxiv." }, { "DOI": "10.3390/biologics6020010", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "key": "ref_112", "unstructured": "Moutinho, I., Marimon, R., Silva, R.D.M., Fernandes, C., Gano, L., Correia, J.D.G., Gonçalves, J., Tavares, L., and Aires-da-Silva, F. (2026). A rabbit-derived single-domain antibody fused to the Streptococcus zooepidemicus Zag protein engineered for SARS-CoV-2 neutralization and extended half-life. Biologics, 6." }, { "DOI": "10.1136/bmj.p264", "article-title": "COVID-19: FDA removes US authorisation for antibody drug Evusheld", "author": "Iacobucci", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "264", "journal-title": "BMJ", "key": "ref_113", "volume": "380", "year": "2023" }, { "DOI": "10.1126/sciimmunol.abl9943", "article-title": "IMM-BCP-01, a patient-derived anti-SARS-CoV-2 antibody cocktail, is active across variants of concern including Omicron BA.1 and BA.2", "author": "Nikitin", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "eabl9943", "journal-title": "Sci. Immunol.", "key": "ref_114", "volume": "7", "year": "2022" }, { "DOI": "10.1080/22221751.2024.2406300", "article-title": "Structural insight into broadening SARS-CoV-2 neutralization by an antibody cocktail harbouring both NTD and RBD potent antibodies", "author": "Jiang", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "2406300", "journal-title": "Emerg. Microbes Infect.", "key": "ref_115", "volume": "13", "year": "2024" }, { "key": "ref_116", "unstructured": "ClinicalTrials (2026, May 28). IMM-BCP-01 in Mild to Moderate COVID-19, Available online: https://clinicaltrials.gov/study/NCT05429021?intr=IMM-BCP-01&viewType=Card&rank=1." }, { "DOI": "10.1038/s41422-021-00497-7", "article-title": "Structure-based development of three- and four-antibody cocktails against SARS-CoV-2 via multiple mechanisms", "author": "Sun", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "597", "journal-title": "Cell Res.", "key": "ref_117", "volume": "31", "year": "2021" }, { "DOI": "10.1126/science.abd0831", "article-title": "Antibody cocktail to SARS-CoV-2 spike protein prevents rapid mutational escape seen with individual antibodies", "author": "Baum", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "1014", "journal-title": "Science", "key": "ref_118", "volume": "369", "year": "2020" }, { "DOI": "10.1016/j.celrep.2022.111845", "article-title": "Rational identification of potent and broad sarbecovirus-neutralizing antibody cocktails from SARS convalescents", "author": "Cao", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "111845", "journal-title": "Cell Rep.", "key": "ref_119", "volume": "41", "year": "2022" }, { "DOI": "10.1038/s41401-022-01043-w", "article-title": "Long-term passaging of pseudo-typed SARS-CoV-2 reveals the breadth of monoclonal and bispecific antibody cocktails", "author": "Ma", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "1455", "journal-title": "Acta Pharmacol. Sin.", "key": "ref_120", "volume": "44", "year": "2023" }, { "key": "ref_121", "unstructured": "U.S. Food and Drug Administration (2026, May 28). FDA Authorizes REGEN-COV Monoclonal Antibody Therapy for Post-Exposure Prophylaxis (Prevention) for COVID-19, Available online: https://www.fda.gov/drugs/drug-alerts-and-statements/fda-authorizes-regen-cov-monoclonal-antibody-therapy-post-exposure-prophylaxis-prevention-covid-19." }, { "key": "ref_122", "unstructured": "ClinicalTrials (2026, May 28). SA55 Injection Phase II Study in the Treatment of Mild/Moderate COVID-19 Patients, Available online: https://clinicaltrials.gov/study/NCT06042764?intr=SA55&viewType=Card&rank=1." }, { "DOI": "10.1016/j.immuni.2021.08.015", "article-title": "Live imaging of SARS-CoV-2 infection in mice reveals that neutralizing antibodies require Fc function for optimal efficacy", "author": "Ullah", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "2143", "journal-title": "Immunity", "key": "ref_123", "volume": "54", "year": "2021" }, { "DOI": "10.1038/s41590-021-01068-z", "article-title": "Low-dose in vivo protection and neutralization across SARS-CoV-2 variants by monoclonal antibody combinations", "author": "Dussupt", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "1503", "journal-title": "Nat. Immunol.", "key": "ref_124", "volume": "22", "year": "2021" }, { "DOI": "10.1016/j.celrep.2022.110368", "article-title": "A Fc-enhanced NTD-binding non-neutralizing antibody delays virus spread and synergizes with a nAb to protect mice from lethal SARS-CoV-2 infection", "author": "Chen", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "110368", "journal-title": "Cell Rep.", "key": "ref_125", "volume": "38", "year": "2022" }, { "DOI": "10.3390/biomedicines12030642", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "key": "ref_126", "unstructured": "Roodink, I., van Erp, M., Li, A., Potter, S., van Duijnhoven, S.M.J., Smits, M., Kuipers, A.J., Kazemier, B., Berkeveld, B., and van Geffen, E. (2024). Broad Epitope Coverage of Therapeutic Multi-Antibody Combinations Targeting SARS-CoV-2 Boosts In Vivo Protection and Neutralization Potency to Corner an Immune-Evading Virus. Biomedicines, 12." }, { "DOI": "10.1038/s41421-022-00401-6", "article-title": "Novel sarbecovirus bispecific neutralizing antibodies with exceptional breadth and potency against currently circulating SARS-CoV-2 variants and sarbecoviruses", "author": "Wang", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "36", "journal-title": "Cell Discov.", "key": "ref_127", "volume": "8", "year": "2022" }, { "DOI": "10.1016/j.isci.2024.109363", "article-title": "Overcoming antibody-resistant SARS-CoV-2 variants with bispecific antibodies constructed using non-neutralizing antibodies", "author": "Inoue", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "109363", "journal-title": "iScience", "key": "ref_128", "volume": "27", "year": "2024" }, { "DOI": "10.1038/s41586-021-03461-y", "article-title": "Bispecific IgG neutralizes SARS-CoV-2 variants and prevents escape in mice", "author": "Pedotti", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "424", "journal-title": "Nature", "key": "ref_129", "volume": "593", "year": "2021" }, { "DOI": "10.1080/21645515.2024.2388344", "article-title": "Broadening sarbecovirus neutralization with bispecific antibodies combining distinct conserved targets on the receptor binding domain", "author": "Guerra", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "2388344", "journal-title": "Hum. Vaccines Immunother.", "key": "ref_130", "volume": "20", "year": "2024" }, { "DOI": "10.1007/s00430-024-00809-9", "article-title": "Engineered bispecific antibodies with enhanced breadth and potency against SARS-CoV-2 variants and SARS-related coronaviruses", "author": "Chang", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "24", "journal-title": "Med. Microbiol. Immunol.", "key": "ref_131", "volume": "213", "year": "2024" }, { "DOI": "10.1080/19420862.2021.1893426", "article-title": "Bispecific VH/Fab antibodies targeting neutralizing and non-neutralizing Spike epitopes demonstrate enhanced potency against SARS-CoV-2", "author": "Lim", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "1893426", "journal-title": "mAbs", "key": "ref_132", "volume": "13", "year": "2021" }, { "DOI": "10.1002/mco2.70191", "article-title": "Novel Trispecific Neutralizing Antibodies with Enhanced Potency and Breadth Against Pan-Sarbecoviruses", "author": "Qiao", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "e70191", "journal-title": "MedComm", "key": "ref_133", "volume": "6", "year": "2025" }, { "DOI": "10.1016/j.cell.2022.03.009", "article-title": "Broad neutralization of SARS-CoV-2 variants by an inhalable bispecific single-domain antibody", "author": "Li", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "1389", "journal-title": "Cell", "key": "ref_134", "volume": "185", "year": "2022" }, { "DOI": "10.1038/s41598-023-40919-7", "article-title": "Discovery and multimerization of cross-reactive single-domain antibodies against SARS-like viruses to enhance potency and address emerging SARS-CoV-2 variants", "author": "Hollingsworth", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "13668", "journal-title": "Sci. Rep.", "key": "ref_135", "volume": "13", "year": "2023" }, { "DOI": "10.1186/s44280-023-00012-0", "article-title": "An RBD bispecific antibody effectively neutralizes a SARS-CoV-2 Omicron variant", "author": "Yuan", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "12", "journal-title": "One Health Adv.", "key": "ref_136", "volume": "1", "year": "2023" }, { "DOI": "10.1080/22221751.2024.2373307", "article-title": "A novel bispecific antibody targeting two overlapping epitopes in RBD improves neutralizing potency and breadth against SARS-CoV-2", "author": "Sun", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "2373307", "journal-title": "Emerg. Microbes Infect.", "key": "ref_137", "volume": "13", "year": "2024" }, { "DOI": "10.1038/s41392-022-00912-4", "article-title": "An ultrapotent RBD-targeted biparatopic nanobody neutralizes broad SARS-CoV-2 variants", "author": "Chi", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "44", "journal-title": "Signal Transduct. Target. Ther.", "key": "ref_138", "volume": "7", "year": "2022" }, { "DOI": "10.1038/s41598-020-74761-y", "article-title": "Development of humanized tri-specific nanobodies with potent neutralization for SARS-CoV-2", "author": "Dong", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "17806", "journal-title": "Sci. Rep.", "key": "ref_139", "volume": "10", "year": "2020" }, { "DOI": "10.1038/s41590-022-01138-w", "article-title": "An engineered bispecific human monoclonal antibody against SARS-CoV-2", "author": "Li", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "423", "journal-title": "Nat. Immunol.", "key": "ref_140", "volume": "23", "year": "2022" }, { "DOI": "10.1080/22221751.2024.2404166", "article-title": "Bispecific antibodies provide broad neutralization of emerging beta-coronaviruses by targeting ACE2 and viral spikes", "author": "Li", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "2404166", "journal-title": "Emerg. Microbes Infect.", "key": "ref_141", "volume": "13", "year": "2024" }, { "key": "ref_142", "unstructured": "(2026, May 28). A Phase Ia Clinical Study to Evaluate the Safety, Tolerability, PK and Immunogenicity of YBSW015 in Healthy Subjects, Available online: https://clinicaltrials.gov/study/NCT05369754?intr=YBSW015&viewType=Card&rank=1." }, { "DOI": "10.1038/s41467-023-36106-x", "article-title": "Shark nanobodies with potent SARS-CoV-2 neutralizing activity and broad sarbecovirus reactivity", "author": "Chen", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "580", "journal-title": "Nat. Commun.", "key": "ref_143", "volume": "14", "year": "2023" }, { "DOI": "10.1016/j.str.2022.02.011", "article-title": "Structural basis of nanobodies neutralizing SARS-CoV-2 variants", "author": "Shi", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "707", "journal-title": "Structure", "key": "ref_144", "volume": "30", "year": "2022" }, { "DOI": "10.1038/s41467-024-49096-1", "article-title": "A bispecific antibody exhibits broad neutralization against SARS-CoV-2 Omicron variants XBB.1.16, BQ.1.1 and sarbecoviruses", "author": "Wang", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "5127", "journal-title": "Nat. Commun.", "key": "ref_145", "volume": "15", "year": "2024" }, { "DOI": "10.1128/jvi.00775-22", "article-title": "A Bispecific Antibody Targeting RBD and S2 Potently Neutralizes SARS-CoV-2 Omicron and Other Variants of Concern", "author": "Yuan", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "e0077522", "journal-title": "J. Virol.", "key": "ref_146", "volume": "96", "year": "2022" }, { "DOI": "10.3390/vaccines13060592", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "key": "ref_147", "unstructured": "Feng, H., Wang, Z., Li, L., Li, Y., Lu, M., Chen, X., Hu, L., Sun, Y., Du, R., and Qin, R. (2025). Discovery of Synergistic Broadly Neutralizing Antibodies Targeting Non-Dominant Epitopes on SARS-CoV-2 RBD and NTD. Vaccines, 13." }, { "DOI": "10.1126/scitranslmed.ado9026", "article-title": "A multispecific antibody against SARS-CoV-2 prevents immune escape in vitro and confers prophylactic protection in vivo", "author": "Misasi", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "eado9026", "journal-title": "Sci. Transl. Med.", "key": "ref_148", "volume": "16", "year": "2024" }, { "DOI": "10.1126/scitranslmed.abj5413", "article-title": "Bispecific antibodies targeting distinct regions of the spike protein potently neutralize SARS-CoV-2 variants of concern", "author": "Cho", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "eabj5413", "journal-title": "Sci. Transl. Med.", "key": "ref_149", "volume": "13", "year": "2021" }, { "DOI": "10.1038/s41421-022-00463-6", "article-title": "Combating the SARS-CoV-2 Omicron (BA.1) and BA.2 with potent bispecific antibodies engineered from non-Omicron neutralizing antibodies", "author": "Wang", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "104", "journal-title": "Cell Discov.", "key": "ref_150", "volume": "8", "year": "2022" }, { "DOI": "10.1038/s41467-022-33284-y", "article-title": "Engineering SARS-CoV-2 specific cocktail antibodies into a bispecific format improves neutralizing potency and breadth", "author": "Ku", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "5552", "journal-title": "Nat. Commun.", "key": "ref_151", "volume": "13", "year": "2022" }, { "DOI": "10.15252/embr.202154199", "article-title": "Biparatopic sybodies neutralize SARS-CoV-2 variants of concern and mitigate drug resistance", "author": "Walter", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "e54199", "journal-title": "EMBO Rep.", "key": "ref_152", "volume": "23", "year": "2022" }, { "DOI": "10.1002/advs.202304818", "article-title": "Dendritic Cell-Mediated Cross-Priming by a Bispecific Neutralizing Antibody Boosts Cytotoxic T Cell Responses and Protects Mice against SARS-CoV-2", "author": "Albericio", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "e2304818", "journal-title": "Adv. Sci.", "key": "ref_153", "volume": "10", "year": "2023" }, { "DOI": "10.1016/j.isci.2025.113175", "article-title": "Structure-guided bispecific antibody engineering confers broad protection against KP.3.1.1 and sarbecoviruses", "author": "Ma", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "113175", "journal-title": "iScience", "key": "ref_154", "volume": "28", "year": "2025" }, { "DOI": "10.1186/s12985-025-02964-8", "article-title": "Development of broadly neutralizing antibodies against Omicron variants from existing neutralizing antibodies in clinical trials", "author": "Huang", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "358", "journal-title": "Virol. J.", "key": "ref_155", "volume": "22", "year": "2025" }, { "DOI": "10.1126/scitranslmed.abf1555", "article-title": "Enhanced SARS-CoV-2 neutralization by dimeric IgA", "author": "Wang", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "eabf1555", "journal-title": "Sci. Transl. Med.", "key": "ref_156", "volume": "13", "year": "2021" }, { "DOI": "10.1073/pnas.2315354120", "article-title": "Conversion of monoclonal IgG to dimeric and secretory IgA restores neutralizing ability and prevents infection of Omicron lineages", "author": "Marcotte", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "e2315354120", "journal-title": "Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA", "key": "ref_157", "volume": "121", "year": "2024" }, { "DOI": "10.1084/jem.20220638", "article-title": "Potent human broadly SARS-CoV-2-neutralizing IgA and IgG antibodies effective against Omicron BA.1 and BA.2", "author": "Planchais", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "e20220638", "journal-title": "J. Exp. Med.", "key": "ref_158", "volume": "219", "year": "2022" }, { "DOI": "10.1038/s41467-020-18058-8", "article-title": "A cross-reactive human IgA monoclonal antibody blocks SARS-CoV-2 spike-ACE2 interaction", "author": "Ejemel", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "4198", "journal-title": "Nat. Commun.", "key": "ref_159", "volume": "11", "year": "2020" }, { "DOI": "10.1016/j.ymthe.2025.02.041", "article-title": "Nasal delivery of secretory IgA confers enhanced neutralizing activity against Omicron variants compared to its IgG counterpart", "author": "Zhang", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "1687", "journal-title": "Mol. Ther.", "key": "ref_160", "volume": "33", "year": "2025" }, { "DOI": "10.1073/pnas.2107148118", "article-title": "Increased in vitro neutralizing activity of SARS-CoV-2 IgA1 dimers compared to monomers and IgG", "author": "Sun", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "e2107148118", "journal-title": "Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA", "key": "ref_161", "volume": "118", "year": "2021" }, { "DOI": "10.1128/jvi.01740-24", "article-title": "Ultrapotent IgA dimeric antibodies neutralize emerging Omicron variants", "author": "Zuo", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "e01740-24", "journal-title": "J. Virol.", "key": "ref_162", "volume": "99", "year": "2025" }, { "DOI": "10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2023.126817", "article-title": "An engineered bispecific nanobody in tetrameric secretory IgA format confers broad neutralization against SARS-CoV-1&2 and most variants", "author": "Zeng", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "126817", "journal-title": "Int. J. Biol. Macromol.", "key": "ref_163", "volume": "253", "year": "2023" }, { "DOI": "10.1073/pnas.2216521120", "article-title": "IgG3 subclass antibodies recognize antigenically drifted influenza viruses and SARS-CoV-2 variants through efficient bivalent binding", "author": "Bolton", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "e2216521120", "journal-title": "Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA", "key": "ref_164", "volume": "120", "year": "2023" }, { "DOI": "10.1038/s41586-021-03673-2", "article-title": "Nasal delivery of an IgM offers broad protection from SARS-CoV-2 variants", "author": "Ku", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "718", "journal-title": "Nature", "key": "ref_165", "volume": "595", "year": "2021" }, { "DOI": "10.1016/j.xcrm.2023.100918", "article-title": "Two pan-SARS-CoV-2 nanobodies and their multivalent derivatives effectively prevent Omicron infections in mice", "author": "Liu", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "100918", "journal-title": "Cell Rep. Med.", "key": "ref_166", "volume": "4", "year": "2023" }, { "DOI": "10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2023.128191", "article-title": "Structure-guided design of a trivalent nanobody cluster targeting SARS-CoV-2 spike protein", "author": "Jiang", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "128191", "journal-title": "Int. J. Biol. Macromol.", "key": "ref_167", "volume": "256", "year": "2024" }, { "DOI": "10.1016/j.isci.2022.103960", "article-title": "A potent alpaca-derived nanobody that neutralizes SARS-CoV-2 variants", "author": "Weinstein", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "103960", "journal-title": "iScience", "key": "ref_168", "volume": "25", "year": "2022" }, { "DOI": "10.1186/s12951-025-03243-y", "article-title": "A bivalent spike-targeting nanobody with anti-sarbecovirus activity", "author": "Swart", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "196", "journal-title": "J. Nanobiotechnol.", "key": "ref_169", "volume": "23", "year": "2025" }, { "DOI": "10.1038/s41586-021-03676-z", "article-title": "Nanobodies from camelid mice and llamas neutralize SARS-CoV-2 variants", "author": "Xu", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "278", "journal-title": "Nature", "key": "ref_170", "volume": "595", "year": "2021" }, { "DOI": "10.1371/journal.ppat.1013744", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "key": "ref_171", "unstructured": "Sun, H., Jiang, Y., Lan, M., Zhou, M., Yi, G., Shen, J., Deng, T., Liu, L., Huang, Y., and Li, Y. (2025). Engineering a multivalent antibody nanoparticle to overcome SARS-CoV-2 Omicron immune evasion. PLoS Pathog., 21." }, { "DOI": "10.1038/s41392-023-01512-6", "article-title": "Nanoparticle-based multivalent human antibodies offer potent and broad neutralization against Omicron sublineages", "author": "Wang", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "284", "journal-title": "Signal Transduct. Target. Ther.", "key": "ref_172", "volume": "8", "year": "2023" }, { "DOI": "10.2147/IJN.S387160", "article-title": "A Multivalent and Thermostable Nanobody Neutralizing SARS-CoV-2 Omicron (B.1.1.529)", "author": "Lu", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "353", "journal-title": "Int. J. Nanomed.", "key": "ref_173", "volume": "18", "year": "2023" }, { "DOI": "10.1016/j.it.2024.06.003", "article-title": "Protective non-neutralizing SARS-CoV-2 monoclonal antibodies", "author": "Izadi", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "609", "journal-title": "Trends Immunol.", "key": "ref_174", "volume": "45", "year": "2024" }, { "DOI": "10.3389/fimmu.2021.808932", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "key": "ref_175", "unstructured": "Bahnan, W., Wrighton, S., Sundwall, M., Bläckberg, A., Larsson, O., Höglund, U., Khakzad, H., Godzwon, M., Walle, M., and Elder, E. (2021). Spike-dependent opsonization indicates both dose-dependent inhibition of phagocytosis and that non-neutralizing antibodies can confer protection to SARS-CoV-2. Front. Immunol., 12." }, { "DOI": "10.1371/journal.ppat.1011569", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "key": "ref_176", "unstructured": "Pierre, C.N., Adams, L.E., Higgins, J.S., Anasti, K., Goodman, D., Mielke, D., Stanfield-Oakley, S., Powers, J.M., Li, D., and Rountree, W. (2024). Non-neutralizing SARS-CoV-2 N-terminal domain antibodies protect mice against severe disease using Fc-mediated effector functions. PLoS Pathog., 20." }, { "DOI": "10.1073/pnas.2317222121", "article-title": "Evidence of antigenic drift in the fusion machinery core of SARS-CoV-2 spike", "author": "Tan", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "e2317222121", "journal-title": "Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA", "key": "ref_177", "volume": "121", "year": "2024" }, { "DOI": "10.1038/s41586-021-04017-w", "article-title": "Fc-engineered antibody therapeutics with improved anti-SARS-CoV-2 efficacy", "author": "Yamin", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "465", "journal-title": "Nature", "key": "ref_178", "volume": "599", "year": "2021" }, { "DOI": "10.1073/pnas.2217590120", "article-title": "Subclass-switched anti-spike IgG3 oligoclonal cocktails strongly enhance Fc-mediated opsonization", "author": "Izadi", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "e2217590120", "journal-title": "Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA", "key": "ref_179", "volume": "120", "year": "2023" }, { "DOI": "10.1016/j.str.2024.08.022", "article-title": "Discovery and characterization of a pan-betacoronavirus S2-binding antibody", "author": "Johnson", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "1893", "journal-title": "Structure", "key": "ref_180", "volume": "32", "year": "2024" }, { "DOI": "10.1126/scitranslmed.abl8124", "article-title": "The SARS-CoV-2 monoclonal antibody combination, AZD7442, is protective in nonhuman primates and has an extended half-life in humans", "author": "Loo", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "eabl8124", "journal-title": "Sci. Transl. Med.", "key": "ref_181", "volume": "14", "year": "2022" }, { "DOI": "10.1371/journal.ppat.1014071", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "key": "ref_182", "unstructured": "Wang, Y., Hu, Y., Ku, Z., Yeung, J., Zou, J., Woodson, M., Prokhorov, N.S., Knyazhanskaya, E.S., Zhao, H., and Sherman, M.B. (2026). Neutralization of SARS-CoV-2 by IgM-14 via engagement of two distinct spike epitopes. PLoS Pathog., 22." }, { "DOI": "10.1016/j.jbc.2026.111210", "article-title": "Engineered IgA-Fc fusion protein with bioactive nanobody neutralizes SARS-CoV-2 variants with mucosal delivery potential", "author": "Golonka", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "111210", "journal-title": "J. Biol. Chem.", "key": "ref_183", "volume": "302", "year": "2026" }, { "DOI": "10.1080/19420862.2025.2499595", "article-title": "Integrating immune library probing with structure-based computational design to develop potent neutralizing nanobodies against emerging SARS-CoV-2 variants", "author": "Silva", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "2499595", "journal-title": "mAbs", "key": "ref_184", "volume": "17", "year": "2025" }, { "DOI": "10.1016/j.cell.2025.10.006", "article-title": "Generation of antigen-specific paired-chain antibodies using large language models", "author": "Wasdin", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "7206", "journal-title": "Cell", "key": "ref_185", "volume": "188", "year": "2025" }, { "DOI": "10.1038/s41586-024-07385-1", "article-title": "Computationally restoring the potency of a clinical antibody against Omicron", "author": "Desautels", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "878", "journal-title": "Nature", "key": "ref_186", "volume": "629", "year": "2024" }, { "DOI": "10.1038/s41586-025-09442-9", "article-title": "The Virtual Lab of AI agents designs new SARS-CoV-2 nanobodies", "author": "Swanson", "doi-asserted-by": "crossref", "first-page": "716", "journal-title": "Nature", "key": "ref_187", "volume": "646", "year": "2025" } ], "reference-count": 187, "references-count": 187, "relation": {}, "resource": { "primary": { "URL": "https://www.mdpi.com/1999-4915/18/6/642" } }, "score": 1, "short-title": [], "source": "Crossref", "subject": [], "subtitle": [], "title": "Broad Neutralizing Antibodies Against SARS-CoV-2: Current Progress and Engineering Strategies", "type": "journal-article", "update-policy": "https://doi.org/10.3390/mdpi_crossmark_policy", "volume": "18" }